Optical encoder devices and systems

ABSTRACT

Devices, systems and methods for encoding information using optical components are described. An example photonic filtered sampler includes a spectral shaper configured to receive an optical pulse train, a dispersive element positioned to receive an output of the spectral shaper and to expand spectral contents thereof in time, and a modulator configured to receive an output of the dispersive element and a radio frequency (RF) signal, and to produce a modulated output optical signal in accordance with the RF signal. In this configuration, one or more characteristics of the modulated output optical signal is determined based on a spectral shape provided by the spectral shaper and dispersive properties of the dispersive element.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This patent application is a divisional application of U.S. Pat.Application No. 17/500,777, entitled “OPTICAL ENCODER DEVICES ANDSYSTEMS”, filed on Oct. 13, 2021, which is a further divisionalapplication of U.S. Pat. Application No. 16/846,143, filed on Apr. 10,2020, issued Nov. 23, 2021 as U.S. Pat. No. 11,184,087, which claimspriority to and benefits of U.S. Provisional Pat. Application No.62/884,649, entitled “ALL OPTICAL HELIX ENCODER,” filed on Aug. 8, 2019.The entire contents of the beforementioned patent applications isincorporated by reference as part of the disclosure of this patentdocument.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.DE-AC52-07NA27344 awarded by the United States Department of Energy. TheGovernment has certain rights in the invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This patent document is directed generally to optical encodingtechniques, and more particularly, to methods, systems and devices forencoding information into optical signals and recovery of the same.

BACKGROUND

Electronic signals are notorious for being prone to noise andinterference. To mitigate this issue, analog optical links offer apromising technology for applications such as radiofrequency(RF)-over-fiber, antenna remoting, and photonic assistedanalog-to-digital converters (ADCs). Optics offers advantages overall-electronic technologies including low jitter, true time delay, andresilience to electromagnetic interference. However, one of the primarylimitations of analog optical link technology is high noise figures (NF)stemming from the noise added in the optical regime. One method forreducing this NF is to increase the modulation depth of the modulated RFsignal. In doing so, the effective gain of the analog link is increased,resulting in a higher signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Many electro-opticmodulation techniques exist that strive for high modulation efficiency.However, fundamental limitations exist for all such technologies,resulting in tradeoffs in RF bandwidth, optical power handling, and/orinsertion loss.

SUMMARY

The disclosed embodiments relate to methods, devices and systems forencoding information using optical techniques.

In some embodiments, intensity information of a first optical signal(e.g., an optical pump) is encoded onto the phase of a second opticalsignal (e.g., an optical probe) using cross phase modulation (XPM) in anon-linear optical medium. The intensity information of the pump can beof any kind, including intrinsic noise from the optical source, or asignal of interest (e.g. electrical, optical, X-ray, or high energyparticle) directly or externally modulated onto the pump. The pump andprobe are multiplexed together into the nonlinear optical medium. Theindex of refraction of the medium is modified via optical Kerr effect bya factor proportional to the pump’s intensity. The probe experiences themodified index of refraction as it propagates through the medium andthus accumulates a phase change proportional to the intensity of thepump. Thus, the intensity information of the pump is mapped to the phaseof the probe. By using large pump intensity, highly non-linear media,and long non-linear interaction length, the efficiency ofintensity-to-phase conversion can be made very large. The disclosedembodiments can be incorporated into larger components and systems toenable various applications in many fields such as scientificdiagnostics, radar, remote sensing, wireless communications and quantumcomputing that utilize or can benefit from encoding and generation oflow noise/high resolution signals.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 illustrates an optical encoder that comprises two optical sourcesand a non-linear optical medium.

FIG. 2 illustrates an optical encoder that comprises two optical sourcesand a non-linear optical medium in which on optical source is modulatedwith a radio-frequency (RF) signal of interest.

FIG. 3 illustrates an interleaved architecture in accordance with anexample embodiment.

FIG. 4 illustrates another interleaved architecture in accordance withan example embodiment.

FIG. 5 illustrates an optical encoder that includes multiple opticaldispersive elements to effect pulse shaping in accordance with anexample embodiment.

FIG. 6 illustrates an optical encoder that includes multiple opticaldispersive elements in which on optical source is modulated with aradio-frequency (RF) signal of interest in accordance with an exampleembodiment.

FIG. 7 illustrates an optical encoder that combines a non-linear mediumand a dispersive element to impart a more uniform phase modulation inaccordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 8(a)illustrates one implementation of an optical encoder that usesan interferometer in a Mach-Zehnder configuration.

FIG. 8(b)illustrates one implementation of an optical encoder that usesan interferometer in a Mach-Zehnder configuration and producescomplementary outputs.

FIG. 9 illustrates an optical encoder that uses an interferometer in aMach-Zehnder configuration with improved visibility of the interferencepattern in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 10 illustrates one implementation of an optical encoder that usesan interferometer in a Sagnac configuration.

FIG. 11 illustrates an optical encoder that uses an interferometer in aSagnac configuration to produce complementary amplitude-modulatedsignals in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 12 illustrates an optical encoder that uses a Mach-Zehnderinterferometer configuration, in which a fixed phase delay in thereference arm is implemented in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 13 illustrates an optical encoder that uses a Sagnac interferometerconfiguration and implements a fixed phase delay in accordance with anexample embodiment.

FIG. 14(a) illustrates an optical encoder that uses a Mach-Zehnderinterferometer configuration and an optical hybrid in accordance with anexample embodiment.

FIG. 14(b)illustrates the optical encoder of FIG. 14(a)that usesbalanced photodetectors in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 15(a) illustrates an optical encoder that uses a Sagnacinterferometer configuration and an optical hybrid in accordance with anexample embodiment.

FIG. 15(b)illustrates the optical encoder of FIG. 15(a)that usesbalanced photodetectors in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 16 illustrates an optical encoder that uses a dual outputelectro-optic modulator is used to encode a radio-frequency (RF) signalof interest in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 17 illustrates an optical encoder in which two complementarymodulated probe signals are interfered with each other using aMach-Zehnder configuration in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 18 illustrates an optical encoder in which two complementarymodulated probe signals are interfered with each other using a Sagnacconfiguration in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 19 illustrates an optical encoder that uses a Mach-Zehnderinterferometer configuration, a photodetector and a digital process toproduce digitized information in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 20 illustrates an optical encoder that uses a Mach-Zehnderinterferometer configuration, a photodetector and a digital process toproduce a digital RF signal in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 21 illustrates a pump-jitter-compensated all-optical encoder inaccordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 22 illustrates a probe-jitter-compensated all-optical encoder inaccordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 23 illustrates a block diagram representing a traditional samplingsystem.

FIG. 24(a)illustrates a block diagram and associated plots for afiltered photonic sampler in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 24(b)illustrates a block diagram and associated plots for afiltered photonic sampler in accordance with another example embodiment.

FIG. 24(c)illustrates a block diagram and associated plots for afiltered photonic sampler in accordance with yet another exampleembodiment.

FIG. 25(a)illustrates a block diagram of a filtered photonic encoder inaccordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 25(b)illustrates a block diagram of a filtered photonic encoder inaccordance with another example embodiment

FIG. 26(a)illustrates a set of optical paths for dual function hybrid inaccordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 26(b)illustrates a set of forward propagating optical paths in adual function hybrid in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 26(c)illustrates a set of backward propagating optical paths in adual function hybrid in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 27(a)illustrates polarization states of optical beams in a dualfunction hybrid in a forward propagating direction in accordance with anexample embodiment.

FIG. 27(b)illustrates polarization states of optical beams in a dualfunction hybrid in a backward propagating direction in accordance withan example embodiment.

FIG. 28(a)illustrates another implementation of a dual function hybridin accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 28(b)illustrates yet another implementation of an optical dualfunction hybrid in accordance with another example embodiment.

FIG. 29 illustrates another implementation of a dual function hybrid inaccordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 30 illustrates another implementation of a dual function hybridbased on a combination of the configurations of FIGS. 26(a)-(c) and 29in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 31(a)illustrates a set of optical paths in a dual function hybridthat utilizes optical circulators in accordance with an exampleembodiment.

FIG. 31(b)illustrates a set of forward propagating optical paths in adual function hybrid that utilizes optical circulators in accordancewith an example embodiment.

FIG. 31(c)illustrates a set of backward propagating optical paths in adual function hybrid that utilizes optical circulators in accordancewith an example embodiment.

FIG. 32(a)illustrates an implementation of dual function hybrid in aMichelson interferometer in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 32(b)illustrates an implementation of dual function hybrid in aSagnac interferometer in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 33 illustrates an optical encoder that produces both aphase-modulated and an amplitude-modulated optical signal in accordancewith an example embodiment.

FIG. 34(a)illustrates an optical encoder configured to compensate for anon-reciprocal loss or gain of a non-linear medium in accordance with anexample embodiment.

FIG. 34(b)illustrates an optical amplifier for compensating anon-reciprocal loss or gain of a non-linear medium in accordance with anexample embodiment.

FIG. 34(c)illustrates Faraday rotators with a polarization dependentloss or gain element for compensating a non-reciprocal loss or gain of anon-linear medium in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 34(d)illustrates two circulators and an attenuator for compensatinga non-reciprocal loss or gain of a non-linear medium in accordance withan example embodiment.

FIG. 35(a)illustrates a photonic filtered sampler that uses multiple RFfilter sampling shapes in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 35(b)illustrates a configuration for producing a multiplexedfiltered sampling optical source in accordance with an exampleembodiment.

FIG. 35(c)illustrates another configuration for producing a multiplexedfiltered sampling optical source in accordance with an exampleembodiment.

FIG. 35(d)illustrates yet another configuration for producing amultiplexed filtered sampling optical source in accordance with anexample embodiment.

FIG. 35(e)illustrates an alternate configuration for a delay lineinterferometer in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 36 illustrates another implementation of the photonic filteredsampler that includes a spectral shaper in accordance with an exampleembodiment.

FIG. 37(a)illustrates a photonic filtered sampler that uses a multipleband filtered sampling optical source to capture information aboutmultiple bands in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 37(b)illustrates a configuration for producing a multiple bandfiltered sampling optical source in accordance with an exampleembodiment.

FIG. 37(c)illustrates another configuration for producing a multipleband filtered sampling optical source in accordance with an exampleembodiment.

FIG. 38 illustrates a photonic filtered sampler that is combined with across-phase modulation based optical quantizer in accordance with anexample embodiment.

FIG. 39 illustrates an arbitrary RF waveform generator at passband thatincludes a spectral shaper in accordance with an example embodiment.

FIG. 40(a)illustrates a perfect pulse train and its associated opticalspectrum

FIG. 40(b)illustrates an example phase offset caused by jitter in thepulse train.

FIG. 40(c)illustrates an example phase offset caused by both jitter andcarrier envelope offset.

FIG. 41(a)illustrates an example timing measurement apparatus inaccordance with the present technology.

FIG. 41(b)illustrates a different example version of a timingmeasurement apparatus in accordance with the present technology.

FIG. 42(a)illustrates another example timing measurement apparatus inaccordance with the present technology.

FIG. 42(b)illustrates a different example version of a timingmeasurement apparatus in accordance with the present technology.

FIG. 43(a)illustrates another example timing measurement apparatus inaccordance with the present technology.

FIG. 43(b)illustrates a different example version of a timingmeasurement apparatus in accordance with the present technology.

FIG. 44 illustrates yet another example timing measurement apparatus inaccordance with the present technology.

FIG. 45 illustrates an example architecture of a timing measurementsystem in accordance with the present technology.

FIG. 46 illustrates another example architecture of a timing measurementsystem in accordance with the present technology.

FIG. 47 illustrates another example architecture of a timing measurementsystem in accordance with the present technology.

FIG. 48 illustrates an example architecture of a timing measurementsystem that reduces environmental dependency in accordance with thepresent technology.

FIG. 49 illustrates another example architecture of a timing measurementsystem in accordance with the present technology.

FIG. 50 illustrates another example architecture of a timing measurementsystem in accordance with the present technology.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS

In this document, the word “coupled” is used to convey direct orindirect connectivity between two components or elements.

As noted earlier, optical systems and components offer a promisingtechnology for applications such as radiofrequency (RF)-over-fiber,antenna remoting, and photonic assisted analog-to-digital converters(ADCs) with reduce noise characteristics. To this end, in some of thedisclosed embodiments intensity information carried by a first opticalsignal (sometimes referred to as the pump) is encoded onto the phase ofa second optical signal (sometimes referred to as a probe) throughall-optical cross phase modulation (XPM). The advantage of all-opticalmodulation is that it avoids photocurrent saturation and bandwidthlimitations of optical-to-electrical (O-E) and electrical-to-optical(E-O) conversion. Additionally, with large pump power and longpump-probe interaction length, the intensity-to-phase conversionefficiency can be made very large, effectively amplifying the intensityinformation of the pump. Further, by converting the intensityinformation into phase, the magnitude of the converted information is nolonger limited to 100% modulation depth, but instead can span multiple2π radians without clipping. The disclosed optical encoder devices aresometimes referred to as helix encoders because when considered from thecomplex plane of the probe electric field, the mapping of intensity tophase can be viewed as encoding the pump intensity information into ahelix, with the third dimension represented by the total number of 2πradian windings. Therefore, the disclosed technology enables highfidelity characterization of information encoded on the intensity of thepump.

In the disclosed embodiments, modulation efficiency of encoding isimproved by modulating an RF signal onto a pump signal with anelectro-optic modulator, and then mapping that intensity into the phaseof a probe signal via all-optical phase modulation. The phase modulationcan be performed in a low loss, highly non-linear optical fiber of up toa kilometer of length or more. The modulation efficiency can thereforebe increased by orders of magnitude. Because the phase modulation relieson ultrafast Kerr non-linearity, there is no tradeoff with RF bandwidth.Additionally, optical fiber exhibits very high optical power handling.The disclosed optical encoders can be incorporated as part of largersystems that can benefit from encoding and generation of low noise, highresolution signals.

Other techniques have used all-optical cross phase modulation to mapintensity information of a modulated pump signal to a probe. However,these techniques do not treat the phase encoding as an analogmodulation. Instead, they use a one-bit detection scheme to determinewhether the probe is on or off. Multiple of such phase encoders can beused in tandem to build an all-optical quantizer, with the number ofbits equal to the number of encoders. These techniques are thereforefundamentally of a different nature than the disclosed embodiments anddo not take advantage of the full benefits of the highly efficientintensity-to-phase mapping.

The disclosed technology relies on two optical signals (e.g., two lasersources producing the pump 102 and the probe 104 optical signals) and aKerr non-linear optical medium 108, as illustrated in FIG. 1 . It shouldbe noted that in the description, the terms probe/pump and probe/pumpsignal are sometimes used interchangeably to facilitate the description.It is understood, however, that a pump optical signal is produced usingan optical source, such as a pump laser. Similarly, a probe opticalsignal is produced using an optical source, such as a probe laser. InFIG. 1 , the multiplexer 106 combines the two optical sources and thede-multiplexer 110 receives the multiplexed optical signal afterpropagating through the non-linear medium 108 and provides thephase-modulated probe signal 112 at its output. Alternatively, a commonsource can be divided to produce both pump 102 and probe 104 signals.Information is first encoded onto the intensity of the pump 102 signal.The information can be of any kind, including intrinsic noise from theoptical source, or a signal of interest directly or externally modulatedonto the pump. Multiplexing can be achieved through wavelengthmultiplexing, polarization multiplexing, or even time multiplexing (thelatter is relevant to pulsed optical sources and would include walk-offbetween pump and probe inside the non-linear medium 108 to ensure thepulses overlap in time). The index of refraction of the non-linearmedium 108 is modified by the pump 102 via the Kerr effect. The indexchanges proportionally to the pump’s intensity and the non-linearparameter of the medium 108. The probe 104 signal that is overlapped intime with the pump 102 signal experiences the modified index ofrefraction as it propagates through the medium 108 and thus accumulatesa phase change proportional to the instantaneous intensity of the pump102. Thus, the intensity information of the pump 102 is mapped to thephase of the probe 104. It is beneficial to maintain the relativepolarization states of the pump 102 and probe 104 as they traverse thenon-linear medium 108. This can be achieved using birefringence, such asin a polarization maintaining fiber. At the output of the non-linearmedium 108, the pump 102 and probe 104 are demultiplexed and the phaseinformation of the probe signal is recovered. The demultiplexed pumpsignal (not shown) can also be recovered and used for other purposessuch as to facilitate a coarse signal measurement.

In one implementation, an electro-optic modulator (EOM) 216 can be usedto intensity modulate a radio-frequency (RF) signal 214 of interest ontothe pump 202 before multiplexing with the probe 204, as shown in FIG. 2. With this implementation, the RF signal 214 is mapped onto theintensity of the pump 202 and then onto the phase of the probe 204. Theremaining components and operations in FIG. 2 , including the non-linearmedium 208, the multiplexer 206 and the demultiplexer 210, are similarto those in FIG. 1 . The phase-modulated probe 212 can be obtained atthe output of the demultiplexer 210. Using a strong pump power alongwith a large non-linear coefficient and long interaction length, the RFsignal 214 can be modulated onto the phase of the probe 204 with amodulation depth many times greater than can be achieved withstate-of-the-art EOMs.

In the configurations of FIGS. 1 and 2 , high repetition rate pumppulses can be used to sample high frequency RF signals. However, highrepetition rates also increase the bandwidth requirements of thephotodiode used to convert the optical signals into electrical signals(not shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 ) and the backend electronics, and canresult in lower fidelity measurements. In some embodiments, lower speedprobe pulses can be used in an interleaved fashion to capture theinformation of all the pump pulses. The interleaved probes can then becaptured separately by an array of low speed photodetectors andhigh-resolution backend electronics. FIG. 3 illustrates one suchinterleaved architecture in accordance with an example embodiment. Inthis interleaving approach for pulse picking to reduce bandwidthrequirements, the pump 302 is split into multiple copies by a 1xNsplitter 318 (N ≥ 2); each copy of the pump 302 is multiplexed with aseparate lower repetition rate (i.e., 1/N repetition rate) probe signal304 a, 304 b, ... 304N, respectively, using multiplexers 306 a, 306 b,... 306N, and is sent into a corresponding separate non-linear medium308 a, 308 b, ... 308N. The 1xN splitter can be implemented as aone-by-N or M-by-N optical coupler. N demultiplexers 310 a, 310 b, ...310N are used to demultiplex each of the phase-modulated lower-rateoptical signals to recover the phase encoded intensity information fromthe phase-modulated probe signals 312 a, 312 b, ... 312N. The lowerrep-rate probe signals 304 a, 304 b, ... 304N in FIG. 3 , prior tomultiplexing with the pump signal 302, are each delayed usingcorresponding delay components 320 a, 320 b, ... 320N (the first pumpsignal may have a zero delay) by a predetermined amount based on thenumber probes. For example, if the repetition rate of the pump source302 is 1/Δt, delay 1 (320 a) can have a value of Δt, delay 2 (320 b) canhave a value of 2Δt, delay 3 (not shown) can have a value of 3Δt, and soon.

FIG. 4 illustrates another pulse picking technique to reduce bandwidthrequirements of photodetector and backend electronics in accordance withan example embodiment. In this configuration, a wavelength multiplexer406 is used to time interleave multiple lower repetition rate probepulse trains 404 a, 404 b, ... 404N (1/N pulse rate) of differentwavelengths, which have been delayed using delay components 420 a, 420b, ... 420N, into the same non-linear medium 408. A wavelengthdemultiplexer 410 separates the optical signals after propagationthrough the medium 408 to produce phase-modulated probe signals atdifferent wavelengths 412 a, 412 b, ...412N before photodetection. Thiswavelength multiplexing approach avoids having to split the pump source402, thus eliminating the need for the 1/N splitter of the configurationin FIG. 3 and avoids the associated power losses, while utilizing asingle non-linear medium 408. The delay value selection for theconfiguration of FIG. 4 can be similar to that described in connectionwith FIG. 3 .

In pulsed source implementations, it can be beneficial to use chromaticdispersion to engineer the pulse widths of the pump and probe. Forinstance, dispersion can be used to broaden ultrashort pulses and reducepeak powers before entering the non-linear medium. Although highpeak-to-average power can be advantageous, if peak power is too high itcan lead to self-phase modulation broadening or optical wave breaking,resulting in unwanted distortion. Additionally, if the pump pulse is tooshort relative to the probe pulse, the probe may not experience auniform phase modulation across its full width. Therefore, properlyselected dispersive elements provided in the path of the pump and probesignals before XPM (e.g., in the configuration of FIG. 3 ) can broadenboth the pump and the probe pulses to their optimal widths. As shown inFIG. 5 , two dispersive elements 514, 516 are inserted into the opticalpaths of the pump 502 and the probe 504 sources. In determining thedesired pulse widths for the pump and the probe signals that enter thenon-linear medium 508, the dispersive elements 514, 516 are selected totune the peak pump power and the peak probe power to lower values toavoid or reduce undesirable distortions as a result of self-phasemodulation broadening, optical wave breaking, while maintaining asufficiently high peak power to produce the needed phase modulation.Further, in some implementations, the dispersive elements 514, 516 canbe tuned to adjust the ratio of the pump width to the probe width inorder to provide a sufficiently wide pump pulse that allows the probesignal to experience a flat phase modulation across its entire width asit propagates through the non-linear medium 508. Additionally, in theconfiguration of FIG. 5 , a dispersive element 518 is added after phasemodulation to further disperse the output phase-modulated probe signal512. This added dispersive element 518 reduces RF bandwidth requirementsand/or peak power handling requirements for the photodetector andbackend electronics (not shown in FIG. 5 ). The operations of themodulator 506 and the demodulator 510 are similar to those described inconnection with previous figures.

FIG. 6 illustrates another embodiment of the disclosed technology thatadditionally utilizes chromatic dispersion. In the configuration of FIG.6 , an EOM 618 is used to modulate an RF signal 620 onto a modifiedversion of the pump signals. In this configuration, chromatic dispersioncan be added both before RS modulation (using dispersive element 614)and after modulation (using dispersive element 616). The dispersiveelement 614 before the EOM 618 first broadens the unmodulated pump 602,mapping optical spectrum to time. The EOM 618 then modulates the RFsignal 620 onto the dispersed pump, mapping the RF signal 620 into theoptical spectrum. The second dispersive element 616 (e.g., a fiber)further broadens the RF-modulated pump, stretching the modulated RFsignal. In this way, the RF modulated signal on the pump can be timestretched. This can be advantageous during XPM because the probe 604experiences a lower bandwidth RF signal, thus reducing the distortioneffects associated with the finite pulse width of the probe sampling ahigh frequency RF signal. The remaining components and operations ofFIG. 6 (including the multiplexer 606, the non-linear medium 608 and thedemultiplexer 610) are similar to those previously described inconnection with FIGS. 1-5 . The output in FIG. 6 is the phase-modulatedprobe signal 612.

Another method of improving performance in accordance with the disclosedembodiments involves changing the relative timing between the pump andprobe during XPM. One method of accomplishing this is through the use ofchromatic dispersion inside of the non-linear optical medium. If thecenter wavelengths of the pump and probe pulses are separated from eachother and lie in a region of non-zero dispersion, the two pulses willtraverse the non-linear optical medium with different group velocities(one termed the fast pulse and the other the slow pulse). The pump andprobe pulses therefore walk-off with respect to each other during XPM asthe pulses propagate through the non-linear medium. In accordance withsome embodiments, the timing of the pulses is engineered such that, atthe input of the non-linear medium, the fast pulse trails the slowpulse, whereas, at the output of the non-linear medium, the fast pulseleads the slow pulse. This is illustrated by the slow and fast pulses inFIG. 7 . In the configuration of FIG. 7 , the non-linear optical element708 is depicted as comprising a dispersive optical element as partthereof. As the fast pulse overtakes the slow pulse, the pulses overlapwith a continuously changing relative time delay. This walk-off can beadvantageous because since all parts of the probe 704 pulse aremodulated by the pump 702, the probe 704 receives a more uniform phasemodulation, thus eliminating or greatly reducing any unwanted ripples ornon-uniformities on the phase-modulated signal. Additionally, the pump702 signal inherently includes certain amount of noise (e.g., shotnoise). The walk-off, which mathematically can be considered as aconvolution operation, operates to effectively average the noise acrossthe pump 704 pulse, thus smoothing the signal and improving thesignal-to-noise ratio of the phase-modulated signal 712. In order toenable the above-described walk-off, several factors or designparameters can be taken into account, including the wavelengthseparation between the pump 702 and the probe 704 sources, centerwavelengths of the probe 702 and the pump 704 sources, dispersivecharacteristics of the non-linear medium 708, and dimensions (e.g.,length) of the non-linear medium 708, which can be used individually orcollectively to provide the desired walk-off. For example, increasingthe length of the non-linear medium 708 produces increased walk off.Thus, unlike many applications that avoid walk-off and prefer zerodispersion across the non-linear media 708, the disclosed embodiments asexemplified by the configuration of FIG. 7 utilize chromatic dispersionassociated with the non-linear media 708 in a controlled way to improvephase modulation and the signal-to-noise ratio. It should be noted thatwhile the example in FIG. 7 illustrates the probe 702 beam as the fastpulse and the pump 704 beam as the slow pulse, in some embodiments, thesystem can be designed to allow for the probe 704 beam to be the fastpulses and the pump 702 beam to be the slow pulse. The remainingcomponents and operations of FIG. 7 (including the multiplexer 706 andthe demultiplexer 710) are similar to those described in connection withprevious figures.

Other aspects of the disclosed embodiments relate to improvedinterferometric techniques to recover the phase information of the probeafter XPM. These techniques can utilize a low noise local oscillator oran unmodulated reference copy of the probe. In the latter case, theprobe signal can be split before being multiplexed with the pump. Theoptical splitter can be implemented as a one-by-two or two-by-twooptical coupler. The phase-modulated probe signal and unmodulatedreference signal are combined and interfered, converting the phaseinformation into amplitude information. The optical combiner can beimplemented as a two-by-one or two-by-two optical coupler. The nature ofthe two-by-two coupler is such that the two outputs receivecomplementary modulation. By capturing both outputs, balanced detectioncan be employed in the analog or digital domain to boost the recoveredsignal and mitigate common mode noise. See. e.g., FIGS. 8(b) and 11 . Itshould be noted that similar modifications to produce utilizecomplementary outputs may be made to other example embodiments disclosedherein (although explicit figures may not have been separatelyproduced).

FIG. 8(a)illustrates one implementation of the interferometer in aMach-Zehnder configuration. The optical splitter 812 provides a copy ofthe probe 804 to the optical combiner 814 (i.e., the reference path ofthe interferometer) that also receives the output of the demultiplexer810 to form interference fringes corresponding to theamplitude-modulated probe 816. The other output of the optical splitter812 in FIG. 8(a)is provided to the multiplexer 806, which also receivesthe pump 802 signal; the output of the multiplexer 806 is provided tothe non-linear medium 808. FIG. 8(b) illustrates a similar configurationas FIG. 8(a) but with the complementary outputs of the combinerproviding complementary amplitude-modulated probe signals 816(a), 816(b)to the balanced photodetector 818. For example, the complementaryamplitude-modulated probe signals can be 180 degrees out of phase withrespect to one another.

In accordance with an example embodiment, a second non-linear opticalmedium is placed in the reference signal path to improve the visibilityof the interference pattern at the output of the interferometer, asillustrated in FIG. 9 . The second non-linear medium 918 acts to bettermatch the optical loss, dispersion, and non-linear optical parametersexperienced by the probe 902 and reference 904 signals. Since theoptical non-linearity is dependent on the intensity, it is important toensure the powers of the probe and reference signals are the same asthey enter the two non-linear media 908, 918. By isolating thedifferences between modulated and reference signals to the phasemodulation of the pump, the interference signal provided by theamplitude-modulated probe 916 signal can be made stronger (i.e., themodulation depth of the interference fringes is increased) and theinformation from the pump 902 can be more effectively recovered. Theremaining components and operations of FIG. 9 (including the multiplexer906, the splitter 912, the demultiplexer 910, the combiner 914) aresimilar to those described in connection with FIG. 8(a).

The interferometer can also be implemented in a Sagnac configuration, asillustrated in FIG. 10 . In this configuration, the probe 1002 isprovided to the multiplexer/demultiplexer 1006 via the optical coupler1012, and the probe 1002 and reference signals propagate through thesame multiplexer/demultiplexer 1006, non-linear optical medium 1008, andmultiplexer/demultiplexer 1010, but in opposite directions. The probepropagates in the same direction as the pump and therefore experiences agreater phase modulation than the reference. The phase information canbe recovered via the amplitude-modulated probe signal 1014 at the outputof the optical coupler 1012.

In accordance with an example embodiment, in order to take advantage oftwo complementary outputs of the interferometer, a circulator is used toisolate the backward propagating amplitude-modulated probe, asillustrated in FIG. 11 . One benefit of the Sagnac configuration is thatthe probe 1102 and reference signals traverse the same optical path,automatically matching the optical parameters experienced by the two.Again, it is beneficial to match the optical power of the probe 1102 andreference as they enter the non-linear medium 1108. The Sagnacconfiguration, due to utilizing a shared common path, also reduces thesusceptibility of phase variation due to environmental factors such astemperature, vibrations and the like, as well as due to lengthvariations and manufacturing variability of components, thus furtherrestricting the phase difference between probe 1102 and referencesignals to the pump modulation alone. In the configuration of the FIG.11 , the optical circulator 1114 (operating to separate optical signalsthat travel in different directions) is connected to an optical coupler1112 and the probe 1104 source, and enables propagation of the probe1104 signal towards the coupler 1112 and the recovery of one of the twocomplementary amplitude-modulated probe signals 1116(b) (the othercomplementary output 1116(a) is obtained from the optical coupler 1112similar to FIG. 10 ). The complementary outputs 1116(a), 1116(b) areprovided to a balanced photodetector 1118. In FIG. 11 , each of themultiplexers/demultiplexers 1106, 1110 is configured to operate as amultiplexer for optical beams that are input to the correspondingmultiplexer/demultiplexer 1106, 1110 in one direction, and operate as ademultiplexer for a beam that is input therein in another direction.

In some embodiments, the interferometer configuration includes a fixedphase delay between the probe and reference signal paths, using anoptical phase shifter. FIG. 12 illustrates a Mach-Zehnder interferometerconfiguration, in which a fixed phase delay (provided by the opticalphase shifter 1214) in the reference arm is implemented in accordancewith an example embodiment. For example, the fixed phase delay can beimplemented based on a technique termed amplitude-to-time opticalmapping (ATOM) with the aid of the dispersive element 1220 (see, U.S.Pat. No. 8,934,058 B2, which is incorporated by reference herein). Theremaining components and operations of FIG. 12 (including themultiplexer 1206, the non-linear medium 1308, the demultiplexer 1310,and the optical splitter 1212 that receive and/or manipulate the opticalpump 1202 and probe 1204 signals) are similar to those described inconnection with FIG. 8(a).

The fixed phase delay can also be implemented in a Sagnac configuration,as illustrated in FIG. 13 . In the example Sagnac configuration of FIG.13 , two non-reciprocal polarization rotators 1314, 1318 (such asFaraday rotators) and a birefringent medium 1316 can be used to createan asymmetric optical path length between forward and backwardspropagating signals. The polarization rotators 1314, 1318 arenon-reciprocal polarization rotators; that is, optical beams passingthrough the same rotator in different directions experience differentpolarization rotations. The combination of rotators 1314, 1318 and thebirefringent medium 1316 creates a path length difference between theclockwise and counterclockwise propagation directions of the opticalbeam. Upon interference, this phase delay leads to a sinusoidalinterference fringe in the spectral domain which can be mapped into thetime domain using chromatic dispersion provided with the aid of thedispersive element 1322. The remaining components and operations of FIG.13 (including the multiplexer/demultiplexers 1306, 1310, the non-linearmedium 1308, and the optical coupler 1312 that receive and/or manipulatethe optical pump 1302 and probe 1304 signals) are similar to thosedescribed in connection with FIG. 10 . The resulting fringe is detectedas an effective intermediate frequency (IF) signal, with an RF frequencydependent on the phase delay and the amount of chromatic dispersion. Thephase-modulated information of the probe is encoded into the phase ofthis IF signal and can be recovered using analog or digitalin-phase/quadrature (IQ) demodulation. The advantage of this techniqueis that the modulated phase information on the probe can span multiplefactors of 2π radians and be recovered without signal degradation.

Another implementation of the interferometer configuration uses a90-degree optical hybrid as the combiner at the output ofinterferometer. FIG. 14(a) illustrates the inclusion of the hybrid 1414in a Mach-Zehnder interferometer configuration. FIG. 15(a) illustratesthe inclusion of an optical hybrid 1512, as well as a circulator 1514,in a Sagnac interferometer configuration. The output of the hybrid (1414in FIG. 14(a) and 1514 in FIG. 15(a)) includes phase shifted copies ofthe phase-modulated signal (e.g., phase shifted by 0, 90, 180 and 270degrees - shown respectively as 1416(a), 1416(b), 1416(c), and 1416(d)in FIG. 14(a) and as 1516(a), 1516(b), 1516(c), and 1516(d) in FIG.15(a)). Hence the output includes both I and Q interference signals,achieving IQ demodulation optically without requiring a high frequencyIF signal. This is advantageous as it reduces the bandwidth requirementsof the photodetector and backend electronics. The optical hybrid (1414in FIG. 14(a) and 1514 in FIG. 15(a)) can be used in a Mach-Zehnderconfiguration as in FIG. 14(a) or in a Sagnac configuration as in FIG.15(a). In FIG. 15(a), the optical circulator 1512 couples the pump 1504signal to the hybrid 1514 and provides one of the amplitude-modulatedprobe signals 1516(a). The remaining components and operations of FIG.14(a)(including the multiplexer 1406, the non-linear medium 1408, thedemultiplexer 1410, and the optical splitter 1412 that receive and/ormanipulate the optical pump 1402 and probe 1404 signals) are similar tothose previously described. Furthermore, the remaining components andoperations of FIG. 15(a)(including the multiplexer/demultiplexers 1506,1510, and the non-linear medium 1508 that receive and/or manipulate theoptical pump 1502 and probe 1504 signals) are similar to those describedpreviously.

FIGS. 14(b) and 15(b)illustrate similar configurations as in FIGS. 14(a)and 15(a), respectively, but further include two balanced photodetectors(1418(a) and 1418(b) in FIG. 14(b), and 1518(a) and 1518(b) in FIG.15(b)) that are each positioned to receive two complementary outputs ofin the depicted example configurations.

In some configurations, a dual output electro-optic intensity modulatoris used to encode an RF signal onto the intensity of the pump, as shownin FIG. 16 . The pump 1602 signal is provided to dual electro-opticintensity modulator 1614 that has two outputs. The first output of themodulator 1614 is encoded with the RF signal 1616 and the second outputof the modulator 1614 is encoded with a complementary version of the RFsignal 1616. These two encoded pump signals can be multiplexed usingmultiplexers 1606(a), 1606(b) into two separate non-linear optical media1608(a), 1608(b), along with two separate probe signals 1604. The twophase-modulated probe signals 1612(a), 1612(b) obtained from thedemultiplexers 1610(a), 1610(b) are phase-modulated with thecomplementary information. Upon phase recovery, the complementaryinformation can be combined in such a way as to amplify the signal andreduce common mode noise (e.g., the common noise is canceled ornormalized via subtraction or division operations). Common mode noisecan include pump noise accumulated before the electro-optic modulator.The phase information can be read out by interfering each complementarymodulated probe with separate local oscillators or reference signals.

FIG. 17 illustrates a configuration in accordance with an exampleembodiment, in which the two complementary modulated probes areinterfered with each other using a Mach-Zehnder configuration. Similarto FIG. 16 , the pump 1702 signal is provided to dual electro-opticintensity modulator 1714 that has two outputs. The first output of themodulator 1714 is encoded with the RF signal 1716 and the second outputof the modulator 1714 is encoded with a complementary version of the RFsignal 1716. These two encoded pump signals are provided to themultiplexers 1706(a), 1706(b). Further, the probe 1704 signal is splitby an optical splitter 1720 and provided to each of the multiplexers1706(a), 1706(b). Each probe signal then undergoes a phase modulation asit propagates through each of the non-linear media 1708(a), 1708(b) inaccordance with each of the complementary RF signals. An opticalcombiner 1718 is used to receive an output from each demultiplexer1710(a), 1710(b) to allow the phase-modulated beams to interfere witheach other to form the amplitude-modulated interference pattern 1712 atthe output. By interfering the two complementary phase modulatedsignals, improvements in modulation efficiency and noise reduction canbe achieved in the analog domain without requiring twice the number ofoptical couplers or photodetectors.

FIG. 18 illustrates an alternate embodiment in which the interference ofthe two complementary probes is implemented in Sagnac configuration. Inthis configuration, isolators or circulators can be used to isolate theforward and backwards propagating pumps. By interfering the twocomplementary phase-modulated signals, improvement in modulationefficiency and noise reduction can be achieved in the analog domainwithout requiring twice the number of optical couplers orphotodetectors. Similar to the previous configurations, the pump 1802signal is provided to dual electro-optic intensity modulator 1814 thathas two outputs. The first output of the modulator 1814 is encoded withthe RF signal 1816 and the second output of the modulator 1814 isencoded with a complementary version of the RF signal 1816. These twoencoded pump signals are provided to the multiplexers/demultiplexers1806(a), 1806(b). The optical coupler 1812 receives the probe 1804signal, and is further coupled to the multiplexers/demultiplexers1806(a), 1806(b), and also provides that amplitude-modulated probe 1818signal.

Another set of embodiments use a photodetector (or multiplephotodetectors) and a digital processor (or multiple digital processors)to capture the modulated probe signal(s) and to generate a digitizedversion of the original amplitude-encoded information of the pump, asillustrated in FIGS. 19 and 20 . The photodetector (1918 and 2018 inFIGS. 19 and 20 , respectively) is a device which converts an opticalsignal into an analog current or voltage signal. A photodetector issensitive only to the intensity of the incident optical signal; it isnot sensitive to the phase of the signal. Therefore, in theseembodiments, the probe signal(s) must be interfered with a localoscillator or reference signal to convert the phase-modulatedinformation to amplitude-modulated information. Phase-to-amplitudeconversion can be done, for example, based on the previously disclosedembodiments. FIGS. 19 and 20 provide example configurations that use aMach-Zehnder interferometer configuration. The optical combiner (1914and 2014 in FIGS. 19 and 20 , respectively) can be, for example, asingle or dual output 2x2 splitter, or a 2, 3, or 4 output opticalhybrid. Any and all of the amplitude-modulated probe signal outputs canbe detected and processed by a photodetector (1918 and 2018 in FIGS. 19and 20 , respectively) and digital processor (1920 and 2020 in FIGS. 19and 20 , respectively). The digital processor (1920 and 2020 in FIGS. 19and 20 , respectively) can include an analog-to-digital converter toproduce a raw digital version of the detected analog signal, as well asdigital signal processing to undo the transfer function of theall-optical XPM and improve the fidelity of the digital signal.Digitized information (1924 in FIG. 19 ) and digitized RF signals (2024in FIG. 20 ) can be produced by the processor. The remaining componentsand operations of FIGS. 19 and 20 (including the multiplexers 1906,2006, the non-linear media 1908, 2008, the demultiplexers 1910, 2010,the optical splitters 1912, 2012 that receive, and the electro-opticintensity modulator 2026 that receive and/or manipulate the optical pump1902, 2002, the probe 1904, 2004, and/or the RF signal 2028 signals) aresimilar to those previously described.

Another set of embodiments relate to improving the operations of thedisclosed optical encoders and larger systems that incorporate suchoptical encoders based on timing error measurement methods and devices(sometimes referred to as a jitter meter (JM) or a timing measurementdevice). The timing measurement improve the fidelity of the recoveredinformation by correcting for pulse-to-pulse timing jitter of the pumpoptical signal, probe optical signal, or both. The JM typically includes(or receives) one or more optical pulse train sources, and furtherincludes an optical hybrid, optical filters, photodetectors,analog-to-digital converters, and a digital processor. Appendix A, atthe end of this patent document, provides further details and exampleimplementations of the timing measurement device/jitter meter.

In some embodiment, the combination of timing measurement devices andtechniques with the disclosed optical encoders can improve the fidelityof the recovered information by correcting for pulse-to-pulse timingjitter. Two example embodiments that take advantage of this combinationare described in connection with FIGS. 21 and 22 .

FIG. 21 illustrates a pump-jitter-compensated all-optical helix encoderin accordance with an example embodiment. This embodiment uses thejitter measurement of pump in the digital processor to reduce the pumpjitter-induced noise of this XPM-based RF digitization system. Theconfiguration of FIG. 21 : (1) feeds the pump 2102 into an opticalsplitter 2110; (2) one output of that splitter 2110 is sent into ajitter meter 2118 to measure the pump jitter; (3) the other part of pump2102 signal power is sent into an electro-optic intensity modulator 2122and is modulated in intensity by the RF signal 2120; (4) theintensity-modulated pump is fed into a multiplexer 2106; (5) the probe2104 is fed into an optical splitter 2112; (6) one output of thesplitter 2112 is fed into a multiplexer 2106; (7) the output of themultiplexer 2106, which includes the intensity-modulated pump and probe,is fed into the nonlinear optical element 2108 (χ⁽³⁾ effect); (8) in theχ⁽³⁾ nonlinear optical element 2108, the pump modulates the phase of theprobe with its intensity modulation information; (9) the phase-modulatedprobe obtained at the output of the demultiplexer 2110 is combined withthe probe in an optical combiner 2114, generating an intensity-modulatedprobe; (10) the intensity-modulated probe is provided to thephotodetector 2124, the output of which comprises electrical signalsindicative of the detection information; (11) the photodetectedintensity-modulated probe is digitized (this can be done at thephotodetector, at an input of the digital processor 2116, or via aseparate conversion component; (12) the digital processor 2116 undoesthe transfer function of the χ⁽³⁾ nonlinear optical element, removes thejitter of the pump based on the information provided by the jitter meter2118, and undoes the transfer function of the electro-optic intensitymodulator to recover the RF signal as a digitized RF signal 2128.Therefore, the configuration of FIG. 21 improves the recovery of the RFsignal by accounting for the jitter of the pump that can be measured ona pulse-by-pulse basis in real time.

FIG. 22 illustrates a probe-jitter-compensated all-optical helix encoderin accordance with an example embodiment. In this configuration, (1) thejitter meter 2222 measures the jitter of the probe 2204 instead of thepump 2202 using an additional copy of the probe produced by the opticalsplitter 2220 that is fed into the jitter meter 2222; (2) the pump 2202does not need to be split before the electro-optic intensity modulator2216, the output of which along with the probe signal 2204 provided byan output for the optical splitter 2220 are received by the multiplexer2206; (3) the optical combiner 2212 receives an output of thedemultiplexer 2210 and the probe signal from the optical splitter 2220;the photodetector 2224 converts the optical signals output from theoptical combiner 2212 into electrical signals and provides them to thedigital processor 2226, which removes the jitter of the probe, undoesthe transfer function of the χ⁽³⁾ nonlinear optical element 2208, andundoes the transfer function of the electro-optic intensity modulator2216 to recover the RF signal 2218 as a digitized RF signal 2228. Inthis configuration, the recovery of the RF signal is improved byaccounting for the jitter of the probe that can be measured on apulse-by-pulse basis in real time. It should be noted that variousdisclosed embodiments can be combined to provide additionalimprovements.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to using a photonicfiltered sampler to filter the response of the photonic sampler to theRF signal input. Traditional photonic samplers, which use an opticalsource and electro-optic modulator to encode RF signal information onoptical pulses, have a response to RF signal input frequencies thatfalls off with frequency, and the spectral width of this response variesinversely with the pulse width of the optical source. A block diagramrepresenting such traditional systems, a set of input pulses and theassociated sampling response are illustrated in FIG. 23 .

For some applications, it is desired to filter out signal and noisecontent outside of an RF frequency band of desired spectral width andcenter frequency. In accordance with some example embodiments, byinserting a delay line interferometer and/or a spectral shaper (see alsoFIG. 36 ) and a dispersive element between the optical source andelectro-optic modulator, the photonic sampler is able to filter contentoutside of a band around 0 frequency and a desired center frequency,both with a desired spectral width. FIG. 24(a) illustrates a blockdiagram and associated plots for a photonic filtered sampler inaccordance with an example embodiment. In FIG. 24(a), the optical source2402 is provided to a delay line interferometer 2404, the output ofwhich is received by a dispersive element 2406. The photonic filteredsampler causes the pulses to gain a width of the envelope of the pulsesproportional to the strength of the dispersive element 2406, and atemporal fringe pattern with a frequency of fringes proportional to thestrength of the dispersive element 2406 and the time delay in the delayline interferometer 2404. The inset in FIG. 24(a) illustrates oneexample implementation of the delay line interferometer 2404. In thisconfiguration, the optical splitter 2404(a) receives the optical source2402 and provides one output (that forms one arm of the interferometer)unchanged to the optical coupler 2404(c); the other output of thesplitter 2404(a) is received by a time delay element 2404(b) beforereaching the optical coupler 2404(c). In some implementations, the delayline interferometer is fixed, while in some embodiments, it can betunable via various means: a tunable time delay by, e.g., a mechanicalfree space stage, a pair of input/output switches with an array of fixedtime delays, a phase shifter (e.g., heater, fiber stretcher, carrierinjection) to tune the fringe phase relative to the envelope, or a pairof input/output switches with an array of fixed delay lineinterferometers. In some implementation, the dispersive element isfixed, while in some embodiments, it can be tunable via various means,such as via a heater, or a pair of input/output switches with an arrayof fixed dispersive elements. While the configuration of FIG. 24(a) canbe a photonic bandpass-filtered sampler, it is understood that thedisclosed technology applies to other types of filtered samplers, suchas multi-band pass filters, band stop filters, and the like.

FIG. 24(b) illustrates another example embodiment of a photonic filteredsampler in accordance with an example embodiment. The components in FIG.24(b) are similar to those in FIG. 24(a) except for a spectral shaper2416 that is used to modify the spectral shape of the optical source.Non-limiting examples of the spectral shaper include an optical filter,made with thin-film or Bragg grating technologies; a diffraction gratingto separate the optical frequencies in space, a spatial light modulatorto alter the insertion loss of each optical frequency individually, andthe original or another diffraction grating to combine the opticalfrequencies back together. FIG. 24(c)illustrates yet another exampleembodiment of a photonic filtered sampler. In this exampleconfiguration, both a delay line interferometer 2418 and a spectralshaper 2420 are used prior to the dispersive element.

FIG. 25(a) illustrates a block diagram of a filtered photonic encoder inaccordance with an example embodiment. In the configuration of FIG.25(a), the delay line interferometer 2512 and the dispersive element2514 are inserted between the optical source 2502 (pump) and theelectro-optic intensity modulator 2516 (similar to the configuration ofFIG. 24(a)), along with an optional compressive element 2520. Thecompressive element 2520 may be desirable in, for example,configurations that are designed for the pump 2502 and probe 2504 towalk-off from each other, which can cause the width of the pump 2502optical signal to shrink with respect to the probe 2504 signal so thatthe phase induced on the probe is sensitive to the pump’s energy ratherthan its pulse shape. The output of the compressive element 2520 isprovided to the multiplexer 2506, which also receives the probe 2504signals and provides the multiplexed optical signal to the non-linearmedium 2508. The walk off effect of the non-linear medium 2508 waspreviously described in connection with FIG. 7 . The phase-modulatedprobe 2522 is obtained at the output of the demultiplexer 2510. Similarto FIG. 24(a), the configuration of FIG. 25(a) enables filtering outsignal and noise content outside of an RF frequency band of desiredspectral width and center frequency.

FIG. 25(b) illustrates a block diagram of a filtered photonic encoder inaccordance with another example embodiment. The components in FIG.25(b)are similar to those in FIG. 25(a)except for the spectral shaper2524 that is used prior to the dispersive element similar to theconfiguration in FIG. 24(b).

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to a new type ofoptical hybrid coupler, which uses the Faraday magneto-optic effect toprovide non-reciprocal dual functionality depending on propagationdirection. Specifically, in one direction (which will be termed the“forward propagating direction”) this dual-function hybrid (“DFH”)operates as a one-by-two (1x2) coupler with a certain coupling ratio(e.g., 50%), and in the opposite direction (which will be termed the“backward propagating direction”) it operates as an optical hybrid witha certain coupling ratio (e.g., 50%).

This non-reciprocal dual functionality can be useful in applicationssuch as bi-directional interferometers (e.g., Sagnac or Michelson). Atthe input of such bi-directional interferometers, the incoming opticalbeam need only be split into two optical beams, one for each arm of theinterferometer; at the output of the interferometer, it can beadvantageous for the beams from each arm to be combined in both anin-phase and a quadrature configuration, thus requiring an opticalhybrid. If a standard optical hybrid is used for such applications, atthe input to the interferometer the optical beam will be split into fourbeams, of which only two are used. This unnecessary four-way splittingin the forward propagating direction results in a coupling ratiodependent loss (e.g. 50%). With the DFH, the forward propagating beam issplit into only two beams, thus avoiding unwanted optical loss.

One implementation of the DFH is illustrated in FIGS. 26(a)-(c). Thelines indicate the path of the beam in FIG. 26(a); the arrowed linesindicate the paths traversed by the forward propagating beams in FIG.26(b), and backward propagating beams in FIG. 26(c). Where beam pathsintersect at a semicircle, this indicates that the beams cross eachother unimpeded and unaffected. The device can be implemented physicallyusing free space optics, fiber optics, integrated optics, or anycombination thereof.

In operation, the incoming optical beam in the forward propagatingdirection (FIG. 26(b)) is polarized. The forward propagating beam entersone of two inputs of one of two couplers (in the implementation of FIGS.26(a)-(c), the input is sent to the top input of Coupler1). The beam issplit into two beams with a certain coupling ratio (e.g., 50%), and eachbeam is sent to a polarization beam splitter (“PBS”). The axis of theincoming polarization must be aligned such that substantially all of theforward propagating light is either reflected from or transmittedthrough each PBS (in the implementation of FIGS. 26(a)-(c), all thelight is reflected). The two optical beams then pass through two Faradayrotators (“FR”). The FR’s rotate the polarization states of the beams bycertain amounts (e.g., 22.5°). The direction and magnitude ofpolarization rotations in the two FR’s can be the same or they can bedifferent from each other. After the FR’s, the two beams exit the DFH.The final result of passing through the DFH in the forward propagatingdirection is to split the original incoming beam into two beams, with acoupling ratio equal to that of Coupler1.

Upon reflection (e.g., from a Michelson interferometer) or routing fromone port to the other (e.g., inside of a Sagnac interferometer), thebeams enter the DFH from the right side as seen in FIG. 26(c) andtraverse in the backwards propagating direction through the DFH. Thebeams pass through the two FR’s again, wherein they each receive asecond polarization. Due to the non-reciprocal nature of the Faradaymagneto-optic effect, the direction of polarization rotation through theFR’s is the same in the forward and backward propagating directions.

Critical to how the DFH operates are the relative polarization states ofthe beams at the Forward Propagating Outputs and at the BackwardPropagating Inputs. One particularly important case is when thepolarization states of the outgoing and incoming beams are the same.This scenario is illustrated in FIG. 27 , which shows the polarizationstate of the beams at various points in the DFH, in an implementation inwhich the polarization states at the forward propagating output andbackward propagating input are the same. In FIG. 27(a), the polarizationstates in the forward propagating direction are depicted. The arrowedline along the X-axis represents the polarization state of the beambefore the FR. The arrowed line at an angle, θ, represents thepolarization state after the FR, at the output of the DFH. The FRrotates the polarization by on amount equal to θ in the clockwisedirection. FIG. 27(b)illustrates the polarization states in the backwardpropagating direction. The first arrow (from left) represents thepolarization state of the incoming beam before the FR, and the secondarrow represents the polarization state after the FR, before the PBS.The FR rotates the polarization again by an amount equal to θ in theclockwise direction. Because the polarization states at the forwardpropagating output and backward propagating input are the some, thetotal rotation received by the beams is equal to 2θ.

Providing the same polarization states can be achieved automaticallywith direct reflection (e.g., in a Michelson interferometer) or incareful steering of the polarization states from forward propagatingoutputs to backward propagating inputs. In such a case, the totalrotation applied to each beam is the sum of the angle of rotations ofeach FR (e.g., 2×22.5°=45°). Because of the polarization rotations, thetwo backward propagating beams can have polarization states that willboth be transmitted and reflected by the PBS, whereas in the forwardpropagating direction all the light was either transmitted or reflected.Therefore, upon incidence on the PBS, each backward propagating beam, ingeneral, splits into two orthogonally polarized beams. The ratio ofreflected and transmitted light from the PBS depends on the amount oftotal rotation (e.g., 45° rotation would lead a 50% split). One beamfrom each PBS is sent to one of the 2x2 couplers to combine with andinterfere with one of the beams from the other PBS. One of the fourbeams (in FIG. 26(c), it is the bottom beam) is passed through a phaseshifter (e.g., a time delay) which shifts the phase of the beam relativeto the other by a certain amount (e.g., 90° to enable quadratureinterference) before combining in the 2x2 coupler. It is important toensure that the polarization states of the inputs to each coupler in thebackward propagating direction are the same.

The dual function hybrid can be implemented in various otherconfigurations. For example, one implementation uses only one PBS (FIG.28(a)), and one which uses one PBS and one FR (FIG. 28(b)). Theseconfigurations operate based on the same principles discussed inconnection with FIGS. 26(a)-(c), and provide the appropriatefunctionality as long as the two beams are modally or spatially separateinside of the common optical elements.

In another implementation as shown in FIG. 29 , the configuration ofcomponents is similar to the implementation of FIG. 26(a), except thatthe input polarization of FIG. 29 should be aligned orthogonally to theinput polarization of FIG. 26(a). In such a way, in the forwardpropagating direction, all of the light is transmitted through each PBS,instead of being reflected.

The implementations of FIGS. 26(a)-(c)and FIG. 29 can be combined, asshown, for example, in the configuration of FIG. 30 . In thisimplementation, the two different input polarization states are split inthe forward propagating direction by the PBSs (PBS1a and PBS2a), sentthrough FRs and then recombined by being polarization multiplexed in asecond pair of PBSs (PBS1b and PBS2b). Such an implementation can beuseful in an application using polarization multiplexing.

The DFH can be implemented using optical circulators, as well, as shownin the example configuration of FIGS. 31(a)-(c). Optical circulators arethree port non-reciprocal optical devices. In FIG. 31(b), the forwardpropagating beam is split in Coupler1 into two beams with a certaincoupling ratio (e.g., 50%). The polarization of the input beam isaligned so that all light is either transmitted or reflected by PBS1 andPBS2 (in FIG. 31(b)all light is transmitted). The beams are sent tocirculators which send the beams to the forward propagating outputs ofthe DFH. In the backward propagating direction (FIG. 31(c)), the twobeams are sent to the circulators and are then sent to polarizationrotators (e.g., a waveplate). The polarization rotation is of a certainamount (e.g. 45°). The beams are then sent to PBS’s, wherein they aresplit into two orthogonally polarized beams, with a coupling ratiodependent on the polarization rotation (e.g., 45° rotation would lead a50% split). One beam from each PBS is sent to one of the 2x2 couplers tocombine with and interfere with one of the beams from the other PBS. Oneof the four beams (in FIG. 31(c)it is the bottom beam) is passed througha phase shifter (e.g., a time delay) which shifts the phase of the beamrelative to the other by a certain amount (e.g., 90° to enablequadrature interference) before combining in the 2x2 coupler. It isimportant to ensure that the polarization states of the inputs to eachcoupler in the backward propagating direction are the same.

The use of the DFH in a Michelson and a Sagnac interferometer areillustrated in FIGS. 32(a) and 32(b), respectively.

The disclosed DFH configurations can be used in conjunction with theall-optical helix encoder embodiments of this document. For example, thedisclosed DFH configurations can be used as the optical hybrid depictedin the Sagnac-based configurations of FIG. 15(a), and of FIG. 15(b),with balanced photodetectors. One benefit of using the DFH with theall-optical helix encoder is that it avoids extra loss on the probe atthe input to the Sagnac interferometer. The reduced loss improvessignal-to-noise ratio for the same input power, and/or reduces theoutput power requirements from the probe source.

In another aspect of the disclosed embodiments both a phase-modulatedprobe and an amplitude-modulated probe are produced, such that thephase-modulated probe is not affected by the RF signal input, while theamplitude-modulated probe is affected by the RF signal input, asillustrated in the example configuration of FIG. 33 . In theconfiguration of FIG. 33 , the optical pump 3302 is provided to asplitter 3312, one output of which is provided to the multiplexer 3306;the probe 3304 signal is also provided to the multiplexer 3306; themultiplexed output of the multiplexer 3306 is provided to the non-linearoptical medium 3308, which is coupled to the demultiplexer 3310,producing the phase-modulated probe 3326 at its output. The pump 3302signal is also provided to the dual output EO intensity modulator 3314via the second output of the splitter 3312 for modulation by the RFsignal 3316. Each output of the dual output EO intensity modulator 3314is provided to a corresponding multiplexer/demultiplexer 3320 and 3324,each also coupled to the second non-linear medium 3322, and to theoptical coupler 3318, as depicted. The optical coupler 3318 alsoreceives the probe 3304 signal and produces the amplitude-modulatedprobe signal 3328. In this configuration, fluctuations on theunmodulated pump are contained on both the phase-modulated andamplitude-modulated signals but the RF signal input is contained only onthe amplitude-modulated probe; thus after capturing both signals intothe digital domain, the noise information on the amplitude-modulatedprobe can be canceled using the phase-modulated probe, and the RF signalinput can be reconstructed without the fluctuations from the pump.

In another embodiment, nonreciprocal loss or gain in the χ⁽³⁾ nonlinearoptical element is compensated with a nonreciprocal loss or gain element3420 in the Sagnac interferometer, as illustrated in FIG. 34(a)(which issimilar to FIG. 10 ). Nonreciprocal loss or gain in the χ⁽³⁾ non-linearoptical could be caused by various physics, e.g., four-wave mixing orstimulated Raman scattering. If such nonreciprocal loss or gain in theχ⁽³⁾ non-linear optical element were not compensated in aninterferometer, then the largest possible modulation depth of theamplitude-modulated probe would be reduced as the strength ofuncompensated loss or gain increased. The nonreciprocal loss or gainelement can be implemented in multiple ways, including but not limitedto: an optical amplifier (FIG. 34(b)); two Faraday rotators with apolarization dependent loss or gain element (e.g. a polarizer) in themiddle (FIG. 34(c)); two circulators and an attenuator (FIG. 34(d)),such that the first port of the first circulator is connected to thethird port of the second circulator, the third port of the firstcirculator is connected to the input of the attenuator, the output ofthe attenuator is connected to the first port of the second circulator,and the second port of each circulator are the bidirectionalinput/outputs.

Another implementation of the photonic filtered sampler uses multiple RFfilter sampling shapes to recover more information about the RF signalinput, as shown in the example configuration of FIG. 35(a). ln thisimplementation, a multiplexed filtered sampling optical source 3502feeds an electro-optic modulator 3504, which samples the RF signal 3506input, and the multiplexed signals are then separated with ade-multiplexer 3508 to generate N filtered sampling modulated opticaloutputs 3510(a), 3510(b), ... 3510(n). Choices of set of multiplesampling RF filter shapes include but are not limited to: (1) samplingRF filter shapes each with a different RF phase, e.g., (1-a) 0 and 180degrees apart, which enables cancellation of the common basebandinformation but retention of the passband information, or e.g., (1-b) 0and 90 degrees apart, which enables distinguishing the upper and lowersidebands via e.g. the Hilbert transform; (2) sampling RF filter shapeseach with a different RF frequency, to capture RF signal input frommultiple bands, or capturing nonlinear products of the electro-opticmodulator’s nonlinear transfer function.

The multiplexed filtered sampling optical source can be implemented byin multiple ways. One example implementation is illustrated FIG. 35(b),which feeds one or more optical sources 3512(a), 3512(b), ... 3512(n)into multiple delay line interferometers 3514(a), 3514(b), ... 3514(n),which are then multiplexed together by multiplexer 3516 and feed acommon dispersive element 3518. Another example implementation isillustrated in FIG. 35(c), in which one or more optical sources 3520(a),3520(b), ... 3520(n) feed into multiple dispersive elements 3522(a),3522(b), ... 3522(n) which are then multiplexed together by themultiplexer 3524 and feed into a common delay line interferometer 3526.Yet another example implementation can include separate delay lineinterferometers and dispersive elements for each path before beingmultiplexed.

In still another example implementation of the photonic filteredsampler, shown in FIG. 35(d), the optical source 3528 is provided to adispersive element 3530, which is coupled to a delay line interferometer3532; multiple outputs of a delay line interferometer 3532 are sent tomultiple electro-optic modulators 3534(a), ... 3534(n), which are eachmodulated by the RF signal 3538 input which is split or de-multiplexedby the demultiplexer 3536 to produce a plurality of filtered samplingmodulated optical outputs 3540(a), ... 3540(n). Such a delay lineinterferometer can include the previously stated optical coupler (see,e.g., the inset in FIG. 24(a)) which produces one or two outputs, orsaid optical coupler can be replaced with an optical hybrid, producingfour outputs instead of one or two, and yielding nominal phasedifferences like 0, 90, 180, and 270 degrees, as shown in the exampleconfiguration of FIG. 35(e).

An advantage of using the multiple outputs of a single delay lineinterferometer is that the phase difference between the filteredsampling optical pulse shapes of the multiple outputs is stable and doesnot require an optical de-multiplexer, but a disadvantage of thisimplementation is the need for multiple electro-optic modulators. An RFsplitter would allow the full bandwidth to reach each electro-opticmodulator but at the expense of added insertion loss. An RFdemultiplexer would minimize added insertion loss but only if it isdesigned to not have spectral overlap between its outputs.

FIG. 36 illustrates another implementation of the photonic filteredsampler. In this configuration, a spectral shaper 3604 is insertedbetween the optical source 3602 and the electro-optic modulator 3608(prior to the delay line interferometer 3606) to alter the samplingfilter shape. The combination of the spectral shaper 3604 and the delayline interferometer 3606 can perform the spectral shaping. The output ofthe spectral shaper 3604 is mapped into the time domain by thedispersive element 3608, and the temporal pulse shape in theelectro-optic modulator 3610 defines the sampling impulse response.Altering the optical spectral shape via a spectral shaper 3608 hencealters the sampling impulse response, and can be engineered for adesired sampling filter shape. There are multiple ways of implementing aspectral shaper, including but not limited to: an optical filter, madewith thin-film or Bragg grating technologies; a diffraction grating toseparate the optical frequencies in space, a spatial light modulator toalter the insertion loss of each optical frequency individually, and theoriginal or another diffraction grating to combine the opticalfrequencies back together.

Another implementation of the photonic filtered sampler uses a multipleband filtered sampling optical source to capture information aboutmultiple bands to generate one multiple band filtered sampling modulatedoptical output, as illustrated in the example configuration of FIG.37(a). Although both FIGS. 35(a) and 37(a)may capture information aboutmultiple bands, this implementation produces one output that covers themultiple bands, in contrast to FIG. 35(a), which produces one output perRF filter. This implementation has a multiple band filtered samplingoptical source 3702 feed an electro-optic modulator 3704, which thensamples the RF signal 3706 input, and produces a multiple band filteredsampling modulated optical output 3708.

There are multiple ways to implement such a multiple band filteredsampling optical source, including but not limited to: (1) addingadditional delay line interferometers between the optical source andelectro-optic modulator, as shown in the example configuration of FIG.37(b), or additional arms in a single delay line interferometer, therebycreating a fringe pattern with multiple frequencies; (2) splitting theoptical source into two paths, as shown in the example configuration ofFIG. 37(c), in which the first path going through an optional delay lineinterferometer and optional dispersive element (used to concentratepower into a single spectral band), a photodetector, an optional RFfilter, and another electro-optic modulator (which precedes the originalelectro-optic modulator that samples the RF signal input), thereby usingthe nonlinearity of the photodetector and/or the another electro-opticmodulator to create a fringe pattern with multiple frequencies.

Another implementation of the photonic filtered sampler is combined witha cross-phase modulation based optical quantizer, as shown in theexample configuration of FIG. 38 . The cross-phase modulation, whencombined with the photonic filtered sampler, provides a uniqueconfiguration while providing several useful features and benefits. Atraditional cross-phase modulation based optical quantizer has the RFsignal input modulate an optical source in an electro-optic intensitymodulator, whose output is split and sent to multiple independent χ⁽³⁾non-linear optical elements. The strength of the transfer of amplitudemodulation of the pump to phase modulation on each of the probes isengineered to be different, e.g., via unequal splitting ratio, ordifferent length or nonlinearity strength of the non-linear opticalelements. When the phase-modulated probes are interfered withunmodulated probes, photodetected, and digitized, then the strength ofeach of the digitized signals will be different as well. Given that theinterference process has a sinusoidal transfer function, one can use thedigitized value of each channel to determine the phase modulo πr of eachprobe. With sufficient range of strengths of transfers, one canreconstruct the RF signal input. One choice of set of strengths oftransfers has each successive transfer be increased by a factor of 2.This can then be matched with single bit quantizers, and thereconstruction algorithm would then be to have the weakest transfer bethe least significant bit, and each factor of 2 stronger transfer wouldbe the next most significant bit. When combined with the photonicfiltered sampler, such a cross-phase modulation based optical quantizerwould then gain the significant ability to alter the RF response of theentire system with one or more passbands of tunable shape.

Another implementation of an arbitrary RF waveform generator at passbandusing photonics inserts a spectral shaper between the voltage tunableoptical filter and the optical-to-electrical converter, as shown in theexample configuration of FIG. 39 . The optical spectral shape is mappedinto the time domain by the dispersive element, and the temporal pulseshape at the optical-to-electrical converter defines the system impulseresponse. Engineering the optical spectral shape via a spectral shaperthen engineers the system RF transfer function. There are multiple waysof implementing a spectral shaper, including but not limited to: anoptical filter, made with thin-film or Bragg grating technologies; adiffraction grating to separate the optical frequencies in space, aspatial light modulator to alter the insertion loss of each opticalfrequency individually, and the original or another diffraction gratingto combine the optical frequencies back together.

One aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an optical encoderwith improved bandwidth requirements that includes an optical splitterconfigured to receive a first optical signal and to produce N outputsoptical signals, wherein N is greater than or equal to 2; N opticaldelay components, each configured to receive a train of optical pulseshaving a repetition rate that is 1/Nth of a repetition rate of a pumpsource, each delay component providing a different delay amount for thecorresponding train of optical pulses that is received by the delaycomponent; N optical multiplexers, each configured to receive an outputfrom the optical splitter and an output from a corresponding opticaldelay component; N non-linear optical media, each coupled to acorresponding multiplexer to effect phase modulation onto each of thetrains of optical pulses in accordance with an intensity of thecorresponding output signal of the splitter; and N demultiplexers, eachcoupled to an output of a corresponding non-linear optical medium toproduce N phase-modulated optical signals, wherein processing each ofthe N phase-modulated optical signals for conversion into an electricaldomain is reduced by a factor that depends on N.

One aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an optical encoderwith improved bandwidth requirements that includes N optical delaycomponents, wherein N is greater than equal to 2, each optical delaycomponent configured to receive a train of optical pulses having arepetition rate that is 1/Nth of a repetition rate of a probe source andproviding a different delay amount for the corresponding train ofoptical pulses that is received by the delay component, each train ofoptical pulses having a different spectral content than any of the othertrains of optical pulses. The optical encoder also includes an opticalmultiplexer configured to receive a first optical signal and an outputfrom each of the N optical delay components; a non-linear optical mediumcoupled to an output of the multiplexer to effect phase modulation ontoeach of the trains of optical pulses in accordance with an intensity ofthe first optical signal; and a demultiplexer coupled to an output ofthe non-linear optical medium to produce N phase-modulated opticalsignals, wherein processing each of the N phase-modulated opticalsignals for conversion into an electrical domain is reduced by a factorthat depends on N.

In some embodiments, each of the N optical delay components isconfigured to produce time delays that is equal to n.Δt, where 0 ≤ n ≤N-1, and Δt is a predetermined time separation interval. In someembodiments, processing of each of the N phase-modulated optical signalscan be carried out with: a reduced bandwidth requirement of aphotodetector that is configured receive and convert the correspondingphase optical signal into an electrical signal, and/or a reducedprocessing bandwidth/throughput requirement on a digital processor thatis configured to receive and process the electrical signals from thephotodetector(s), as comparted to processing a phase-modulated opticalsignal that is produced in accordance with a train of optical pulseshaving a repetition rate that is equal to the repetition rate of thepump source.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an opticalencoder that includes one or more dispersive elements positioned toreceive an optical pump or an optical probe signals; a multiplexer toreceive the optical probe and optical pump signals after spectralcontents of one or both of the optical probe or optical pump signals areexpanded in time in accordance with the one or more dispersive elementsto produce spectrally re-shaped optical pump or probe signals; anon-linear optical medium coupled to an output of the multiplexer toeffect phase modulation onto the spectrally re-shaped optical probesignal; and a demultiplexer coupled to an output of the non-linearoptical medium to produce a phase-modulated probe signal, wherein timeexpansion of the optical probe or optical pump signals prior to enteringthe non-linear optical medium enables a more uniform phase modulation ofthe probe signal.

In one example embodiment, a first dispersive element is positioned toreceive the optical pump signal; a second dispersive element ispositioned to receive the optical probe signal; and the optical encoderfurther includes a third dispersive element coupled to an output of thedemultiplexer to receive the phase-modulated probe signal and to effectbroadening of the phase-modulated probe signal in time. In anotherexample embodiment, the first and the second dispersive elements effectbroadening of the optical pump and the probe signals, respectively, toadjust temporal widths and peak powers of the optical signals that areproduced. According to another example embodiment, a first dispersiveelement is positioned to receive the optical pump signal to expandspectral contents of the pump signal in time; an output of the firstdispersive element is coupled to an electro-optic (EO) intensitymodulator, the EO intensity modulator further configured to receive aninput RF signal and to modulate the output of the first dispersiveelement in accordance with the RF signal; a second dispersive element iscoupled to an output of the EO intensity modulator to further expandspectral contents of the intensity modulated pump signal in time; andthe multiplexer is configured to receive an output of the seconddispersive element and the optical probe signal.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an opticalencoder that includes a multiplexer to receive the optical pump signalshaving a first center wavelength and an optical probe signals having asecond center wavelength; a non-linear optical medium coupled to anoutput of the multiplexer and configured to effect phase modulation ontothe optical probe signal in accordance with the optical pump signal, thenon-linear optical medium further configured to effectuate a walk offeffect for the optical pump and optical probe signals that traversetherethrough; and a demultiplexer coupled to an output of the non-linearoptical medium to produce a phase-modulated probe signal, wherein thewalk off effect improve a uniformity of phase modulation of the opticalprobe signal.

In one example embodiment, the walk off effect produces one of thefollowing: each pulse from the optical probe signal upon entry into thenon-linear optical medium trails a corresponding pulse of the opticalpump signal but leads the corresponding pulse of the optical pump signalupon exit from the non-linear optical medium, or each pulse from theoptical pump signal upon entry into the non-linear optical medium trailsa corresponding pulse of the optical probe signal but leads thecorresponding pulse of the optical probe signal upon exit from thenon-linear optical medium. According to some example embodiments, thewalk off effect is effectuated by selecting or tuning one or more of thefollowing: the center wavelength of the pump signal; the centerwavelength of the probe signal; a wavelength separation between the pumpand the probe signals; a composition of materials of the non-linearoptical medium; or a dimension of the nonlinear optical medium. Inanother example embodiment, the walk off effect is effectuated in-partaccording to a dispersive characteristic of the non-linear opticalmedium that corresponds to an optical dispersive element.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an opticalencoder that incorporates a Mach-Zehnder (MZ) interferometricconfiguration. The optical encoder includes an optical splitterconfigured to receive an optical probe signal and to produce a first anda second version of the optical probe signal; a multiplexer to receivethe first version of the optical probe signal and an optical pumpsignal; a first non-linear optical medium coupled to an output of themultiplexer and configured to effect phase modulation onto the firstversion of the optical probe signal in accordance with the optical pumpsignal, the first non-linear optical medium forming part of a test armof the MZ interferometric configuration; a second non-linear opticalmedium that is substantially similar to the first non-linear opticalmedium in composition and length, the second non-linear optical mediumcoupled to an output of the optical splitter to receive the secondversion of the optical probe signal and forming part of a reference armof the MZ interferometric configuration; a demultiplexer coupled to anoutput of the first non-linear optical medium to produce aphase-modulated probe signal; and an optical combiner coupled to thedemultiplexer and to the second non-linear optical medium to combine thephase-modulated probe signal and the second version of the probe signalafter propagation through the second optical medium. In some exampleembodiments, matching characteristics of the first and the secondnon-linear optical medium enable an improved recovery of phase-modulatedinformation from an interference pattern produced by the opticalcombiner.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an opticalencoder that incorporates a Sagnac interferometric configuration. Theoptical encoder includes an optical circulator configured to allow anoptical probe signal to reach an optical coupler; a firstmultiplexer/demultiplexer to receive the optical probe signal from theoptical circulator and to receive an optical pump signal; a non-linearoptical medium coupled to an output of the firstmultiplexer/demultiplexer and configured to effect phase modulation ontothe optical probe signal in accordance with the optical pump signal; anda second multiplexer/demultiplexer coupled to an output of thenon-linear optical medium to produce a phase-modulated probe signal.Each of the first and the second multiplexers/demultiplexers isconfigured to operate as a multiplexer for optical beams that are inputto the corresponding multiplexer/demultiplexer in one direction, andoperate as a demultiplexer for a beam that is input therein in anotherdirection, and the second multiplexer/demultiplexer is coupled to theoptical coupler to allow a first one of complementaryamplitude-modulated optical signals to be directed from a first outputof the optical coupler to an output of the optical circulator.Additionally, a second one of the complementary amplitude-modulatedoptical signals is provided through a second output of the opticalcoupler.

In some example embodiments, the complementary amplitude-modulatedoptical signals enable an improved recovery of encoded information.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to another opticalencoder that incorporates an interferometric configuration. The opticalencoder includes a multiplexer to receive an optical probe signal and anoptical pump signal; a non-linear optical medium coupled to an output ofthe multiplexer and configured to effect phase modulation onto theoptical probe signal in accordance with the optical pump signal, forminga first arm of the interferometric configuration; an optical phaseshifter positioned in a second arm of the interferometric configuration;and a demultiplexer coupled to an output of the non-linear opticalmedium to produce a phase-modulated probe signal. In this opticalencoder, an interference pattern formed by optical signals from the twoarms of the interferometric configuration produces anamplitude-modulated optical signal that represents encoded information,and the optical phase shifter enables modulated phase information on theprobe signal to be recovered in a range that spans multiples of 2πradians.

In one example embodiment, the interferometric configuration is aMach-Zehnder (MZ) configuration, and the optical encoder includes: anoptical splitter configured to receive the optical probe signal prior toentry into the multiplexer, and to produce a first version of theoptical probe signal that is provided to the multiplexer and a secondversion of the optical probe signal that is provided to the phaseshifter; an optical combiner configured to receive an output of thedemultiplexer and an output of the phase shifter to produce theamplitude-modulated optical signal. In one example embodiment, the phaseshifter includes a voltage tunable optical filter that provides anamplitude to time optical mapping. In some example embodiments, theoptical encoder further includes a dispersive element coupled to anoutput of the optical combiner to disperse spectral contents of theamplitude-modulated optical signal in time.

In another example embodiment, the interferometric configuration is aSagnac configuration, and the optical encoder includes: an opticalcoupler configured to receive the optical probe signal prior to entryinto the multiplexer, and to provide the optical probe signal to themultiplexer; and a first polarization rotator, a birefringent medium anda second polarization rotator positioned in a path between the opticalcoupler and a demultiplexer/multiplexer, wherein the optical coupler isconfigured to output the amplitude-modulated signal.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to another opticalencoder that includes a multiplexer to receive an optical probe signaland an optical pump signal; a non-linear optical medium coupled to anoutput of the multiplexer and configured to effect phase modulation ontothe optical probe signal in accordance with the optical pump signal,forming a first arm of the interferometric configuration; and a hybridto produce four amplitude-modulated optical signals having phase shiftswith respect to another, wherein the four amplitude-modulated opticalsignals provide in-phase and quadrature components that enable adetermination of encoded information with an improved signal to noiseratio.

In one example embodiment, a first, a second, a third and a fourth oneof the four amplitude-modulated optical signals have phase shifts of 0,90, 180 and 270 degrees, respectively. In another example embodiment,the optical encoder is configured in a Mach-Zehnder (MZ) interferometricconfiguration, and includes: an optical splitter configured to receivethe optical probe signal and to produce a first version of the opticalprobe signal that is provided to the multiplexer and a second version ofthe optical probe signal that forms part of a reference arm of theinterferometric configuration; and an optical hybrid configured toreceive an output of the demultiplexer and the second version of theoptical probe signal, and to generate the four amplitude-modulatedoptical signals. In another example embodiment, optical encoder isconfigured in a Sagnac interferometric configuration, and includes anoptical circulator coupled to an optical hybrid; in this embodiment, theoptical circulator is configured to receive the optical probe signal andto allow the optical probe signal to reach the optical hybrid, theoptical circulator further configured to receive a first one of the fouramplitude-modulated optical signals from the optical hybrid and toprovide the first one of the four amplitude-modulated optical signals atan output thereof, and the optical hybrid is configured to allow theoptical probe signal to reach the multiplexer, to receive an output ofthe demultiplexer, and to produce the four amplitude-modulated opticalsignals.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to another opticalencoder that includes a dual output electro-optic (EO) intensitymodulator configured to receive an optical pump signal and an RF signal,to modulate optical pump signal according to RF signal, and to producetwo complementary intensity modulated pump signals; two multiplexers,each multiplexer configured to receive one of the complementaryintensity modulated pump signals from the dual output EO intensitymodulator and an optical probe signal; two non-linear optical media,each coupled to an output of a corresponding multiplexer to effect phasemodulation of the optical probe signals in accordance the correspondingone of complementary intensity modulated pump signals; twodemultiplexers, each coupled to a corresponding optical medium; and anoptical combiner coupled to outputs of the demultiplexers to produce anamplitude-modulated probe signal formed based on an interference patternof complementary phase-modulated probe signals.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to another opticalencoder that includes a dual output electro-optic (EO) intensitymodulator configured to receive an optical pump signal and an RF signal,to modulate optical pump signal according to RF signal, and to producetwo complementary intensity modulated pump signals; a firstmultiplexer/demultiplexer to receive one of the complementary intensitymodulated pump signals from the dual output EO intensity modulator andan optical probe signal; a second multiplexer/demultiplexer to receiveanother one of the complementary intensity modulated pump signals fromthe dual output EO intensity modulator; a non-linear media coupledbetween the first and the second multiplexers/demultiplexers to effectphase modulation on optical signals that traverse therethrough; and anoptical coupler coupled to the first and to the secondmultiplexers/demultiplexers, and further configured to receive anoptical probe signal and to allow the optical probe signal to reach thefirst multiplexer/demultiplexer. In this encoder, each of the first andthe second multiplexers/demultiplexers is configured to operate as amultiplexer for optical beams that are input to the correspondingmultiplexer/demultiplexer in one direction, and operate as ademultiplexer for a beam that is input therein in another direction, andthe optical coupler is further configured to provide anamplitude-modulated probe signal formed based on an interference patternof complementary phase-modulated probe signals.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to another opticalencoder that includes an optical splitter to receive an optical probesignal and to produce two copies of the optical probe signal; amultiplexer to receive a first copy of the optical probe signal and anoptical pump signal and to produce a multiplexed optical signal; anon-linear optical medium to receive the multiplexed optical signal andto effect phase modulation thereon; a demultiplexer to receive anoptical signal output from the optical medium; an optical combinerconfigured to receive a second copy of the optical probe signal producedby the optical splitter and an output of the multiplexer, and to producetwo complementary amplitude-modulated probe signals for detection by abalanced photodetector.

The embodiments of optical systems and encoders disclosed herein canfurther include one or more of the each of the following: aphotodetector configured to receive an amplitude-modulated opticalsignal output from the optical encoder and produce electrical signalsrepresentative thereof; a digital signal processor configured to receiveelectrical signals representative of amplitude-modulated opticalsignal(s) output from the optical encoder and to process the electricalsignals in digital domain to determine information optically therein; ora timing measurement device or jitter meter configured to measure atiming error of one or both of the optical pump signal or the opticalprobe signal, and to use the measured timing error to improve adetermination of encoded information. In some embodiments, the measuredtiming error corresponds to timing errors on a pulse-by-pulse basis. Insome embodiments, the timing measurement device or jitter meter isconfigured to measure a timing error of the optical pump signal. In someembodiments, the timing measurement device or jitter meter is configuredto measure a timing error of the optical probe signal. In someembodiments, the measured timing error is used by the digital signalprocessor to remove a timing error of the probe signal, undo a transferfunction the non-linear optical medium, or to undo a transfer functionof an electro-optic intensity modulator to facilitate recovery of an RFsignal.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to photonic filteredsampler that includes a delay line interferometer configured to receivean optical pulse train; a dispersive element positioned to receive anoutput of the delay line interferometer and to expand spectral contentsof in time; and a modulator configured to receive an output of thedispersive element and a radio frequency (RF) signal, and to produce amodulated output optical signal in accordance with the RF signal,wherein the modulated output optical signal has a center frequency and aspectral width that are determined based on an amount of delay providedby the delay line interferometer and dispersive properties of thedispersive element.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to a filteredphotonic encoder that includes the above noted photonic filteredsampler. The filtered photonic encoder further includes a multiplexerconfigured to receive the modulated output optical signal from thedispersive element and an optical probe signal; an optical mediumpositioned to receive an output of the multiplexer; and a demultiplexerconfigured to receive an output of the optical medium and to produce aphase-modulated probe signal. In some embodiments, a compressive elementis further positioned between the modulator and the multiplexer toreduce a width of optical pulses that are output from the modulatorbefore reaching the modulator. In some embodiments, one or both of thedelay and or the dispersive properties is fixed. In some embodiments,one or both of the delay and or the dispersive properties is tunable.

One aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an optical dualfunction hybrid (DFH), that includes a first coupler; a second coupler;a first polarizing beam splitter (PBS) coupled to a first Faradayrotator; a second polarizing beam splitter (PBS) coupled to a secondFaraday rotator; and a phase shifter. Each of the first and the secondcouplers are coupled to both the first and the second PBS, and the phaseshifter is positioned between the second PBS and the second coupler toeffectuate a phase shift to an optical beam that is provided from thesecond PBS to the phase shifter and to the second coupler. In oneexample embodiment, in a forward propagation mode: the first coupler isconfigured to receive an input beam, an output of the coupler isconfigured to provide a first beam to the first PBS, and another outputof the coupler is configured to provide a second beam to the second PBS.In another example embodiment, in a backward propagation mode: the firstPBS is configured to receive a first backward propagating beam from thefirst Faraday rotator, and to provide one output beam from the first PBSto the first coupler and another output beam from the first PBS to thesecond coupler; and the second PBS is configured to receive a secondbackward propagating beam from the second Faraday rotator, and toprovide one output beam from the second PBS to the first coupler, andanother output beam from the second PBS to the phase shifter, whichprovides a phase-shifted backward propagating beam to the secondcoupler. In still another example embodiment, in a forward propagationmode, each PBS is configured to allow only transmission of a beam thatis incident thereupon, with substantially no reflection.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an optical dualfunction hybrid (DFH) that includes a first coupler; a second coupler; apolarizing beam splitter (PBS) coupled to a first and to a secondFaraday rotator; a phase shifter. Each of the first and the secondcouplers are coupled to the PBS, and the phase shifter is positionedbetween the PBS and the second coupler to effectuate a phase shift to anoptical beam that is provided from the PBS to the phase shifter and tothe second coupler.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an optical dualfunction hybrid (DFH) that includes a first coupler; a second coupler; apolarizing beam splitter (PBS) coupled to a Faraday rotator; and a phaseshifter. Each of the first and the second couplers are coupled to thePBS, and the phase shifter is positioned between the PBS and the secondcoupler to effectuate a phase shift to an optical beam that is providedfrom the PBS to the phase shifter and to the second coupler.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an optical dualfunction hybrid (DFH) that includes a first coupler; a second coupler; afirst and a second polarizing beam splitter (PBS) coupled to a firstFaraday rotator; a third and a forth polarizing beam splitter (PBS)coupled to a second Faraday rotator; and a phase shifter. Each of thefirst and the second couplers are coupled to both the first and thethird PBS, the phase shifter is positioned between the third PBS and thesecond coupler to effectuate a phase shift to an optical beam that isprovided from the third PBS to the phase shifter and to the secondcoupler, and in a forward propagation mode, the output of each thesecond and the fourth PBS is polarization multiplexed signal based ontwo outputs of the first Faraday rotator and the second Faraday rotator,respectively.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an optical dualfunction hybrid (DFH) that includes a first coupler; a second coupler; afirst circulator; a second circulator; a first polarizing beam splitter(PBS) coupled to a first polarization rotator and to the firstcirculator; a second polarizing beam splitter (PBS) coupled to a secondpolarization rotator and to the second circulator; and a phase shifter.Each of the first and the second couplers are coupled to both the firstand the second PBS, and the phase shifter is positioned between thesecond PBS and the second coupler to effectuate a phase shift to anoptical beam that is provided from the second PBS to the phase shifterand to the second coupler. In one example embodiment, in a forwardpropagation mode: the first coupler is configured to receive an inputbeam, an output of the coupler is configured to provide a first beam tothe first PBS and to the first circulator from the first PBS, andanother output of the coupler is configured to provide a second beam tothe second PBS and to the second circulator from the second PBS. Inanother example embodiment, in a backward propagation mode: the firstcirculator, the first polarization rotator and the first PBS areconfigured to receive a first backward propagating beam received at, andoutput from, the first circulator to the first polarization rotator andto the first PBS, wherein an output beam from the first PBS is providedto the first and another output beam from the first PBS is provided tothe second couplers; and the second circulator, the second polarizationrotator and the second PBS are configured to receive a second backwardpropagating beam received at, and output from, the second circulator tothe second polarization rotator and to the second PBS, wherein an outputbeam from the second PBS is provided to the first coupler and anotheroutput beam from the second PBS, after propagation through the phaseshifter, is provided to the second coupler. The above noted DFHs canused in combination with an optical helix encoder in a Sagnacconfiguration, such as those in FIGS. 15(a) and 15(b).

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an opticalencoder, comprising an optical splitter configured to receive an opticalpump source signal and to produce two outputs; a multiplexer configuredto receive a first output of the optical splitter and an optical probesignal; a non-linear optical medium configured to receive an output ofthe multiplexer; a demultiplexer configured to receive an output of thenon-linear optical medium and to produce a phase-modulated probe signalat its output; an intensity modulator having at least two outputs andconfigured to receive a second output of the optical splitter and an RFsignal; a first multiplexer/demultiplexer; a secondmultiplexer/demultiplexer; another non-linear optical medium positionedbetween the first and the second multiplexer/demultiplexer; and anoptical coupler. A first output of the intensity modulator is providedto the first multiplexer/demultiplexer, a second output of the intensitymodulator is provided to the second multiplexer/demultiplexer, theoptical coupler is configured to receive and provide the optical probesignal to the first multiplexer/demultiplexer and to receive an outputfrom the first multiplexer/demultiplexer, and the optical coupler isconfigured to receive and to send optical signals to the secondmultiplexer/demultiplexer and to provide an amplitude-modulated probesignal at an output thereof. In one example embodiment, both thephase-modulated probe signal and the amplitude-modulated probe signalincluded fluctuations associated with the optical pump signal, andvariations representative of the RF signal input are only present in theamplitude-modulated probe signal, and wherein fluctuations associatedwith the optical pump signal can be removed based on a combinedprocessing of the phase-modulated probe signal and theamplitude-modulated probe signal.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an optical devicefor compensating a nonreciprocal loss or gain in a nonlinear opticalmedium, comprising an optical amplifier.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an optical devicefor compensating a nonreciprocal loss or gain in a nonlinear opticalmedium, comprising a polarization dependent gain or loss elementpositioned between two Faraday rotators. A port of each Faraday rotatorthat is not connected to the polarization dependent gain or loss elementare configured to provide bidirectional input/outputs of the opticaldevice.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an optical devicefor compensating a nonreciprocal loss or gain in a nonlinear opticalmedium, comprising: a first circulator; a second circulator; and anattenuator positioned between the first and the second circulators. Afirst port of the first circulator is connected to a third port of thesecond circulator, a third port of the first circulator is connected toan input of the attenuator, an output of the attenuator is connected toa first port of the second circulator, and a second port of eachcirculator are configured to provide bidirectional input/outputs of theoptical device. In the above cases, the optical device can be configuredto compensate for non-linear losses or gains in an optical helix encoderthat is based on a Sagnac interferometer and uses a non-linear opticalelement.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to a photonicfiltered sampler that includes an optical modulator configured toreceive a radio frequency (RF) signal and a multiplexed filteredsampling optical source signal; and a demultiplexer configured toreceive an output of the optical modulator and to produce a plurality offiltered sampling modulated optical outputs. In one example embodiment,the multiplexed filtered sampling optical source signal is generatedusing an optical device that includes a plurality of optical delay lineinterferometers, each configured to receive an optical source signal; amultiplexer configured to receive an output from each optical delay lineinterferometer; and a dispersive element configured to receive an outputfrom the multiplexer and to produce the multiplexed filtered samplingoptical source signal at an output thereof. In one example embodiment,the multiplexed filtered sampling optical source signal is generatedusing an optical device that includes a plurality of dispersiveelements, each configured to receive an optical source signal; amultiplexer configured to receive an output from each dispersiveelement; and an optical delay line interferometer configured to receivean output from the multiplexer and produce the multiplexed filteredsampling optical source signal at an output thereof. In another exampleembodiment, the multiplexed filtered sampling optical source signal isgenerated using an optical device comprising: a plurality of opticaldelay line interferometers, each configured to receive an optical sourcesignal; a plurality of dispersive elements, each configured to receivean output signal from a corresponding optical delay line interferometer;and a multiplexer configured to receive an output from each dispersiveelement and produce the multiplexed filtered sampling optical sourcesignal at an output thereof.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to a photonicfiltered sampler that includes a dispersive element to receive anoptical source signal; a delay line interferometer to receive an outputof the dispersive element; N electro-optic modulators, each configuredto receive an output of the delay line modulator and an output of asplitter or a demultiplexer that is configured to receive a radiofrequency (RF) signal, where N is an integer greater than or equal totwo. Each of the N electro-optic modulators is configured to produce oneof the plurality of filtered sampling modulated optical signals at anoutput thereof. In one example embodiment, the delay line interferometerincludes: an optical splitter, time delay element, and an opticalhybrid, where the time delay element connected to a first output of theoptical splitter, the optical hybrid is connected to a second output ofthe optical splitter and to an output of the time delay element, theoptical hybrid producing a plurality of output optical signals.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to a photonicfiltered sampler, comprising: a spectral shaper configured to receive anoptical source signal; a delay line interferometer coupled to an outputof the spectral shaper; a dispersive element configured to receive anoptical signal from an output of the delay line interferometer; and anelectro-optic modulator coupled to the output of the dispersive elementand further configured to receive a radio frequency (RF) signal and toproduce a filtered sampling modulated optical signal at an outputthereof.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to a photonicfiltered sampler, comprising: an electro-optic modulator configured toreceive a multiple band filtered sampling source signal and a radiofrequency (RF) signal and to produce a single multiple band filteredsampling modulated optical signal at an output thereof. In one exampleembodiment, the multiple band filtered sampling source signal isgenerated by an optical device that includes a dispersive elementconfigured to receive an optical source signal, the output of thedispersive element connected to a first of a plurality of N delay lineinterferometers, where N is greater than or equal to 2. Each delay lineinterferometer connected in series with another delay lineinterferometer of the N delay line interferometers, an output of Nthdelay line interferometer representing the multiple band filteredsampling source signal. In another example embodiment, the multiple bandfiltered sampling source signal is generated by an optical device thatincludes: an optical splitter configured to receive an optical sourcesignal; a photodetector positioned in a first optical path and coupledto a first output of the optical splitter; a dispersive elementpositioned in a second optical path and coupled to a second output ofthe optical splitter; and another electro-optic modulator to receiveoptical signals from each of the dispersive element and thephotodetector and to produce the multiple band filtered sampling sourcesignal. The optical device can further include one or more of thefollowing in the first optical path: a delay line interferometer oranother dispersive element before the photodetector, and/or an RF filterbetween the photodetector and the electro-optic modulator.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to a photonicfiltered sampler, comprising: a delay line interferometer configured toreceive an optical source signal; a dispersive element coupled to anoutput of the delay line interferometer; an electro-optic modulatorcoupled to the output of the dispersive element and further configuredto receive a radio frequency (RF) signal; a 1xN demultiplexer configuredto receive an output from the electro-optic modulator, wherein N isgreater than or equal to 2; N multiplexers, each configured to receiveone of N optical signals from an output of the demultiplexer, eachmultiplexer further configured to receive a copy of an optical probesignal; N non-linear optical media, each positioned to receive an outputfrom a corresponding multiplexer; and N demultiplexers, each configuredto receive an optical signal from a corresponding non-linear opticalmedia, wherein each demultiplexer is configured to produce one of Nphase-modulated probe signal at an output thereof.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an arbitraryradio frequency (RF) waveform generator, comprising: a voltage tunableoptical filter configured to receive a plurality of control inputsignals; a dispersive element connected to an output of the voltagetunable optical filter; a spectral shaper connected to an output of thedispersive element; an optical to electrical converter; and an analoginterpolator, wherein generation of an arbitrary RF waveform from anoutput of the analog interpolator is enabled responsive to the pluralityof control signals. In one example embodiment, the plurality of controlsignals includes three control signals: an amplitude control signal, aphase control signal and time delay control signal. In another exampleembodiment, a transfer function of the arbitrary waveform generator canbe adjusted at least in-part by modifying one or more properties of thespectral shaper.

An aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an optical encoderthat includes an optical multiplexer to receive an optical probe signaland an optical pump signal, a non-linear optical medium coupled to anoutput of the optical multiplexer and configured to effect phasemodulation onto the optical probe signal in accordance with the opticalpump signal, forming a first arm of the interferometric configuration,an optical hybrid, and an optical demultiplexer coupled to thenon-linear optical medium and to the optical hybrid. The optical hybridis configured to produce four amplitude-modulated optical signals havingphase shifts with respect to one another, wherein the fouramplitude-modulated optical signals provide in-phase and quadraturecomponents that enable a determination of encoded information with animproved signal to noise ratio. In one example embodiment, a first, asecond, a third and a fourth one of the four amplitude-modulated opticalsignals have phase shifts of 0, 90, 180 and 270 degrees, respectively.

In another example embodiment, the optical encoder further includes twobalanced photodetectors, wherein a first balanced photodetector isconfigured to receive a first and a third of the fouramplitude-modulated optical signals, and a second balanced photodetectoris configured to receive a second and a fourth of the fouramplitude-modulated optical signals. In yet another example embodiment,the optical encoder is configured in a Mach-Zehnder (MZ) interferometricconfiguration, and includes an optical splitter configured to receivethe optical probe signal and to produce a first version of the opticalprobe signal that is provided to the multiplexer and a second version ofthe optical probe signal that forms part of a reference arm of the MZinterferometric configuration. In this MZ interferometric configuration,the optical hybrid is configured to receive an output of the opticaldemultiplexer and the second version of the optical probe signal, and togenerate the four amplitude-modulated optical signals.

In still another example embodiment, the optical encoder is configuredin a Sagnac interferometric configuration in which the opticalmultiplexer is configured to operate as a first opticalmultiplexer/demultiplexer and the optical demultiplexer is configured tooperate as a second multiplexer/demultiplexer, the optical encodercomprising an optical circulator coupled to the optical hybrid. In thisSagnac interferometric configuration, the optical circulator isconfigured to receive the optical probe signal and to allow the opticalprobe signal to reach the optical hybrid. The optical circulator isfurther configured to receive a first one of the fouramplitude-modulated optical signals from the optical hybrid and toprovide the first one of the four amplitude-modulated optical signals atan output thereof. The optical hybrid is configured to allow the opticalprobe signal to reach the first optical multiplexer/demultiplexer, toreceive an output of the second optical multiplexer/demultiplexer, andto produce the four amplitude-modulated optical signals.

One aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an optical encoderthat includes an optical multiplexer to receive an optical probe signaland an optical pump signal. The optical encoder further includes anon-linear optical medium coupled to an output of the opticalmultiplexer and configured to effect phase modulation onto the opticalprobe signal in accordance with the optical pump signal, forming a firstarm of an interferometric configuration. The optical encoderadditionally includes an optical hybrid, and an optical demultiplexercoupled to the non-linear optical medium and to the optical hybrid. Theoptical hybrid is configured to produce two or more amplitude-modulatedoptical signals having phase shifts with respect to one another, whereinthe two or more amplitude-modulated optical signals enable adetermination of encoded information with an improved signal to noiseratio.

In one example embodiment, the two or more amplitude-modulated opticalsignals include one of the following optical signals: a first and asecond amplitude-modulated optical signals having a phase shift 0 and90, degrees, respectively; a first, a second, and a thirdamplitude-modulated optical signal having phase shifts of 0, 90, and 180degrees, respectively; or a first, a second, a third and a fourthamplitude-modulated optical signal having phase shifts of 0, 90, 180 and270 degrees, respectively. In another example embodiment, the opticalencoder further includes one or more balanced photodetectors, where eachbalanced photodetector is configured to receive two of theamplitude-modulated optical signals having 180 degrees phase shift withrespect to each other.

According to another example embodiment, the optical encoder isconfigured in a Mach-Zehnder (MZ) interferometric configuration, andincludes an optical splitter configured to receive the optical probesignal and to produce a first version of the optical probe signal thatis provided to the multiplexer and a second version of the optical probesignal that forms part of a reference arm of the MZ interferometricconfiguration. The optical hybrid is configured to receive an output ofthe optical demultiplexer and the second version of the optical probesignal, and to generate the two or more amplitude-modulated opticalsignals.

In another example embodiment, the optical encoder is configured in aSagnac interferometric configuration in which the optical multiplexer isconfigured to operate as a first optical multiplexer/demultiplexer andthe optical demultiplexer is configured to operate as a secondmultiplexer/demultiplexer. In this configuration, the optical encoderincludes an optical circulator coupled to the optical hybrid and theoptical circulator is configured to receive the optical probe signal andto allow the optical probe signal to reach the optical hybrid. Theoptical circulator is further configured to receive a first one of thetwo or more amplitude-modulated optical signals from the optical hybridand to provide the first one of the two or more amplitude-modulatedoptical signals at an output thereof. Additionally, the optical hybridis configured to allow the optical probe signal to reach the firstoptical multiplexer/demultiplexer, to receive an output of the secondoptical multiplexer/demultiplexer, and to provide the two or moreamplitude-modulated optical signals.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an opticalencoder that includes an optical multiplexer to receive an optical pumpsignal and an optical probe signal, and a non-linear optical mediumcoupled to an output of the optical multiplexer and configured to effectphase modulation onto the optical probe signal in accordance with theoptical pump signal. The non-linear optical medium is further configuredto effectuate a change in relative timing of the optical pump and theoptical probe signals that traverse therethrough. The optical encoderalso includes a demultiplexer coupled to an output of the non-linearoptical medium to produce a phase-modulated probe signal. The change inrelative timing of the optical pump and optical probe signals improves auniformity of phase modulation of the optical probe signal.

In one example embodiment, the change in relative timing ischaracterized by one of the following: (a) each pulse from the opticalprobe signal upon entry into the non-linear optical medium trails acorresponding pulse of the optical pump signal but leads thecorresponding pulse of the optical pump signal upon exit from thenon-linear optical medium, or (b) each pulse from the optical pumpsignal upon entry into the non-linear optical medium trails acorresponding pulse of the optical probe signal but leads thecorresponding pulse of the optical probe signal upon exit from thenon-linear optical medium.

In another example embodiment, the optical probe signal has a firstcenter wavelength and the optical pump signal has a second centerwavelength, and an extent or degree of the change in relative timing iseffectuated based on: a value of the first center wavelength of the pumpsignal, a value of the second center wavelength of the probe signal, awavelength separation between the first center wavelength of the pumpsignal and the second center wavelength of the probe signal, acomposition of materials of the non-linear optical medium, or adimension of the non-linear optical medium. In one example embodiment,the change in relative timing is effectuated in-part according to adispersive characteristic of the non-linear optical medium thatcorresponds to an optical dispersive element. In yet another exampleembodiment, one of the optical pump signal and the optical probe signaltraverses through the non-linear optical medium at a faster speed thanthe other of the optical pump signal and the optical probe signal, thusproducing an overlap between the optical pump signal and the opticalprobe signal with a continuously changing relative time delay. In stillanother example embodiment, increasing a length of the non-linear mediumproduces an increase in the relative timing.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relate to a photonicfiltered sampler that includes a spectral shaper configured to receivean optical pulse train, a dispersive element positioned to receive anoutput of the spectral shaper and to expand spectral contents thereof intime, and a modulator configured to receive an output of the dispersiveelement and a radio frequency (RF) signal and to produce a modulatedoutput optical signal in accordance with the RF signal. One or morecharacteristics of the modulated output optical signal is determinedbased on a spectral shape provided by the spectral shaper and dispersiveproperties of the dispersive element.

In an example embodiment, the one or more characteristics includes ashift in a center frequency and a spectral width of the modulated outputoptical signal. In another example embodiment, the photonic filteredsampler includes a delay line interferometer, and the one or morecharacteristics is determined at least in-part based on an amount ofdelay provided by the delay line interferometer. In still anotherexample embodiment, the delay line interferometer includes an opticalsplitter configured to receive the optical pulse train and to producetwo versions of the optical pulse train, an optical delay componentconfigured to receive a first version of the optical pulse train andimpart a time delay thereto to produce a delayed optical pulse train,and an optical coupler configured to receive the delayed optical pulsetrain and a second version of the optical pulse train, and to produce anoutput that is provided to the dispersive element. In one exampleembodiment, the optical delay component is configured to impart a fixeddelay value to the first version of the optical pulse train. In anotherexample embodiment, one or both of the optical delay component or thedispersive element is tunable. In still another example embodiment, theoptical delay component comprises one or more of the followingcomponents to effect tunability: a mechanical free space stage, one ormore switches operable to select a particular delay value using an arrayof fixed time delay elements, or a phase shifter configured to tune afringe phase of an optical signal in the delay line interferometerrelative to an envelope of thereof. In yet another example embodiment,the dispersive element comprises one or more of the following componentsto effect tunability: a heater, or one or more switches operable to usean array of fixed dispersion elements to select different dispersionvalues.

In one example embodiment, the dispersive element of the photonicfiltered sampler has fixed dispersive properties. In another exampleembodiment, the photonic filtered sampler is configured as part of afiltered photonic encoder that includes an optical multiplexerconfigured to receive the modulated output optical signal from thedispersive element and an optical probe signal, a non-linear opticalmedium positioned to receive an output of the optical multiplexer, andan optical demultiplexer configured to receive an output of thenon-linear optical medium and to produce a phase-modulated probe signal.In another example embodiment, the photonic filtered encoder furthercomprises an optical compressive element positioned between the opticalmodulator and the optical multiplexer to reduce a width of opticalpulses that are output from the optical modulator before reaching theoptical multiplexer. In another example embodiment, the photonicfiltered encoder comprises an optical source configured to produce theoptical probe signal. In yet another example embodiment, the modulatoris an electro-optic intensity modulator.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an opticalencoder incorporating an interferometric configuration that includes anoptical multiplexer to receive an optical probe signal and an opticalpump signal, a non-linear optical medium coupled to an output of theoptical multiplexer and configured to effect phase modulation onto theoptical probe signal in accordance with the optical pump signal, andforming a first arm of the interferometric configuration, an opticalphase shifter positioned in a second arm of the interferometricconfiguration, and an optical demultiplexer coupled to an output of thenon-linear optical medium to produce a phase-modulated probe signal. Inthis configuration, an interference pattern formed by optical signalsfrom the two arms of the interferometric configuration comprises anamplitude-modulated optical signal that represents encoded information,and the optical phase shifter enables modulated phase information on theprobe signal to be recovered in a range that spans multiples of 2πradians.

In one example embodiment, the interferometric configuration of theoptical encoder is a Mach-Zehnder (MZ) configuration. In thisembodiment, the optical encoder includes an optical splitter configuredto receive the optical probe signal prior to entry into the opticalmultiplexer, and to produce a first version of the optical probe signalthat is provided to the optical multiplexer and a second version of theoptical probe signal that is provided to the phase shifter. The opticalencoder further includes an optical combiner configured to receive anoutput of the optical demultiplexer and an output of the phase shifterto produce the amplitude-modulated optical signal. In one embodiment,the phase shifter includes a voltage tunable optical filter thatprovides an amplitude-to-time optical mapping. In another exampleembodiment, the above optical encoder further includes a dispersiveelement coupled to an output of the optical combiner to dispersespectral contents of the amplitude- modulated optical signal in time.

In yet another example embodiment, the interferometric configuration ofthe optical encoder is a Sagnac configuration in which the opticalmultiplexer is configured to operate as a first opticalmultiplexer/demultiplexer and the optical demultiplexer is configured tooperate as a second multiplexer/demultiplexer. In this embodiment, theoptical encoder includes an optical coupler configured to receive theoptical probe signal prior to entry into the first opticalmultiplexer/demultiplexer, and to provide the optical probe signal tothe first optical multiplexer/demultiplexer. The optical encoder furtherincludes a first polarization rotator, a birefringent medium and asecond polarization rotator positioned in a path between the opticalcoupler and the second optical multiplexer/demultiplexer, wherein theoptical coupler is configured to output the amplitude-modulated signal.In one example embodiment, the optical encoder further includes adispersive element coupled to an output of the optical coupler todisperse spectral contents of the amplitude- modulated optical signal intime. In one example embodiment, the first and the second polarizationrotators are non-reciprocal polarization rotators.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an opticalencoder that includes one or more dispersive elements positioned toreceive an optical pump or an optical probe signal, and an opticalmultiplexer to receive the optical probe signal and the optical pumpsignal after spectral contents of one or both of the optical probe orthe optical pump signals are expanded in time in accordance with the oneor more dispersive elements. The optical encoder in this embodimentfurther includes a non-linear optical medium coupled to an output of theoptical multiplexer to effect phase modulation onto the optical probesignal, and an optical demultiplexer coupled to an output of thenon-linear optical medium to provide a phase-modulated probe signal. Inone embodiment, time expansion of the optical probe or optical pumpsignals prior to entering the non-linear optical medium enables a moreuniform phase modulation of the optical probe signal.

According to one example embodiment, a first dispersive element ispositioned to receive the optical pump signal, a second dispersiveelement is positioned to receive the optical probe signal, and theoptical encoder further includes a third dispersive element coupled toan output of the optical demultiplexer to receive the phase-modulatedprobe signal and to effect broadening of the phase-modulated probesignal in time. In another example embodiment, the first and the seconddispersive elements effect broadening of the optical pump and the probesignals, respectively, to adjust temporal widths and peak powers of theoptical probe and pump signals.

In yet another example embodiment, a first dispersive element ispositioned to receive the optical pump signal and to expand spectralcontents of the optical pump signal in time. In this embodiment, anoutput of the first dispersive element is coupled to a modulator, andthe modulator is further configured to receive an input radio frequency(RF) signal and to modulate an optical signal received from the outputof the first dispersive element in accordance with the RF signal. Inthis configuration, a second dispersive element is also coupled to anoutput of the modulator to further expand spectral contents of amodulated optical pump signal in time, and the multiplexer is configuredto receive an output of the second dispersive element and the opticalprobe signal. In still another example embodiment, the modulator is anelectro-optic (EO) intensity modulator, and is configured to modulate anintensity of the optical signal received from the output of the firstdispersive element in accordance with the RF signal.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an opticalencoder that includes a dual output electro-optic (EO) intensitymodulator configured to receive an optical pump signal and a radiofrequency (RF) signal, to modulate the optical pump signal according toRF signal, and to produce two complementary intensity-modulated pumpsignals. The optical encoder further includes two optical multiplexers,where each optical multiplexer is configured to receive one of thecomplementary intensity-modulated pump signals from the dual output EOintensity modulator and an optical probe signal. The optical encoderadditionally includes two non-linear optical media, each coupled to anoutput of a corresponding optical multiplexer to effect phase modulationof the optical probe signals in accordance with a correspondingcomplementary intensity-modulated pump signal, two opticaldemultiplexers, each coupled to a corresponding optical medium, and anoptical combiner coupled to outputs of the optical demultiplexers toproduce an amplitude-modulated probe signal formed based on aninterference pattern of complementary phase-modulated probe signals.

In one example embodiment, the optical encoder comprises an opticalsplitter configured to receive the optical probe signal and to provide afirst version of the optical probe signal to one of the opticalmultiplexers and a second version of the optical probe signal to anotherone of the optical multiplexers.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an opticalencoder that includes a dual output electro-optic (EO) intensitymodulator configured to receive an optical pump signal and a radiofrequency (RF) signal, to modulate the optical pump signal according tothe RF signal, and to produce two complementary intensity-modulated pumpsignals. The optical encoder further includes a first opticalmultiplexer/demultiplexer to receive one of the complementaryintensity-modulated pump signals from the dual output EO intensitymodulator and an optical probe signal, a secondmultiplexer/demultiplexer to receive another one of the complementaryintensity-modulated pump signals from the dual output EO intensitymodulator, a non-linear media coupled between the firstmultiplexer/demultiplexer and the second multiplexer/demultiplexer toeffect phase modulation on optical signals that traverse therethrough,and an optical coupler coupled to the first multiplexer/demultiplexerand to the second multiplexer/demultiplexer, and configured to receivean optical probe signal and to allow the optical probe signal to reachthe first multiplexer/demultiplexer. In this embodiment, each of thefirst and the second multiplexer/demultiplexer is configured to operateas a multiplexer for optical beams that are input to the correspondingmultiplexer/demultiplexer in one direction, and operate as ademultiplexer for a beam that is input therein in another direction. Theoptical coupler is further configured to provide an amplitude-modulatedprobe signal formed based on an interference pattern of complementaryphase-modulated probe signals.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an opticalencoder incorporating a Mach-Zehnder (MZ) interferometric configuration.The optical encoder an optical splitter configured to receive an opticalprobe signal and to produce a first and a second version of the opticalprobe signal, an optical multiplexer to receive the first version of theoptical probe signal and an optical pump signal, and a first non-linearoptical medium coupled to an output of the optical multiplexer andconfigured to effect phase modulation onto the first version of theoptical probe signal in accordance with the optical pump signal, wherethe first non-linear optical medium forms part of a first arm of the MZinterferometric configuration. The optical encoder further includes asecond non-linear optical medium that is substantially similar to thefirst non-linear optical medium in composition and length, and thesecond non-linear optical medium is coupled to an output of the opticalsplitter to receive the second version of the optical probe signal andforms part of a second arm of the MZ interferometric configuration. Theoptical encoder additionally includes an optical demultiplexer coupledto an output of the first non-linear optical medium to produce aphase-modulated probe signal, and an optical combiner coupled to theoptical demultiplexer and to the second non-linear optical medium tocombine the phase-modulated probe signal and the second version of theprobe signal after propagation through the second optical medium and toproduce an amplitude-modulated probe signal.

According to one example embodiment, matching characteristics of thefirst and the second non-linear optical media enable an improvedrecovery of phase-modulated information from an interference patternproduced by the optical combiner. In another example embodiment, thesecond non-linear medium matches optical loss, dispersion, andnon-linear optical parameters of the first non-linear medium. In yetanother example embodiment, the first and the second versions of theprobe signals upon entry to the first and the second non-linear mediahave the same power levels. In yet another example embodiment, thesecond version of the probe signal upon entry to the second non-linearmedium has a power level less than the power level of the second versionof the probe signal upon entry to the second non-linear medium such thatthe self-phase modulation accrued by the two probes at the output of thenon-linear medium are equal.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an opticalencoder that includes N optical delay components, each configured toreceive a train of optical pulses having a repetition rate that is 1/Nthof a repetition rate of a pump source, where N is greater than or equalto 2. Each delay component provides a different delay value for thecorresponding train of optical pulses that is received by the delaycomponent. The optical encoder further includes at least one opticalmultiplexer, where each optical multiplexer is configured to receive afirst optical signal and an output from a corresponding optical delaycomponent. The optical encoder also includes at least one non-linearoptical medium, where each non-linear optical medium is coupled to acorresponding multiplexer to effect phase modulation onto each of thetrains of optical pulses in accordance with an intensity of the firstoptical signal. The optical encoder additionally includes at least oneoptical demultiplexer, where each optical demultiplexer is coupled to anoutput of a corresponding non-linear optical medium to produce Nphase-modulated optical signals, where a bandwidth for processing eachof the N phase-modulated optical signals for conversion into anelectrical domain is reduced by a factor that depends on N. In thisconfiguration, backend (e.g., photodiode, RF amplifier, and/oranalog-to-digital converter bandwidth requirements are improved orreduced.

In one example embodiment, each of the N optical delay components isconfigured to produce a time delay that is equal to n.Δt, where 0 ≤ n ≤N-1, and Δt is a predetermined time separation interval. In anotherexample embodiment, processing of each of the N phase-modulated opticalsignals can be carried out with: a reduced bandwidth requirement of oneor more photodetectors configured to receive and convert thecorresponding phase-modulated optical signal into an electrical signal,and a reduced processing bandwidth or throughput requirement on adigital processor that is configured to receive and process theelectrical signals from the photodetector(s), as comparted to processinga phase-modulated optical signal that is produced in accordance with atrain of optical pulses having a repetition rate that is equal to therepetition rate of the pump source.

In another example embodiment, the optical encoder further includes anoptical splitter configured to receive the first optical signal and toproduce N versions of the first optical signal. In yet another exampleembodiment, the optical encoder includes N optical multiplexers, whereeach optical multiplexer is configured to receive one of N versions ofthe first optical signal as the first optical signal. In still anotherexample embodiment, the optical encoder includes N non-linear media andN optical demultiplexers, wherein each non-linear optical medium isconfigured to receive an output from a corresponding opticalmultiplexer, and each optical demultiplexer is coupled to an output of acorresponding non-linear optical medium. In one example embodiment, eachtrain of optical pulses has a different spectral content than any of theother trains of optical pulses, the at least one optical multiplexerconsists of one optical multiplexer, the at least one non-linear opticalmedium consists of one non-linear optical medium, and the at least oneoptical demultiplexer consists of one optical demultiplexer configuredto produce the N phase-modulated optical signals of differing spectralcontents.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an opticalencoder that includes an optical splitter configured to receive anoptical pump signal and to produce two outputs, an optical multiplexerconfigured to receive a first output of the optical splitter and anoptical probe signal, a first non-linear optical medium configured toreceive an output of the optical multiplexer, an optical demultiplexerconfigured to receive an output of the first non-linear optical mediumand to produce a phase-modulated probe signal at its output, anintensity modulator having at least two outputs and configured toreceive a second output of the optical splitter and a radio frequency(RF) signal, a first optical multiplexer/demultiplexer, a second opticalmultiplexer/demultiplexer, a second non-linear optical medium positionedbetween the first and the second optical multiplexer/demultiplexer, andan optical coupler. In this embodiment, a first output of the intensitymodulator is coupled to the first optical multiplexer/demultiplexer, asecond output of the intensity modulator is coupled to the secondoptical multiplexer/demultiplexer, the optical coupler is configured toreceive and provide the optical probe signal to the first opticalmultiplexer/demultiplexer and to receive an output from the firstoptical multiplexer/demultiplexer, and the optical coupler is configuredto receive and to provide optical signals to the second opticalmultiplexer/demultiplexer and to provide an amplitude-modulated probesignal at an output thereof.

In an example embodiment, both the phase-modulated probe signal and theamplitude-modulated probe signal include fluctuations associated withthe optical pump signal, and variations representative of the RF signalinput are only present in the amplitude-modulated probe signal, where acombined processing of the phase-modulated probe signal and theamplitude-modulated probe signal enable removal of at least somefluctuations associated with the optical pump signal. In another exampleembodiment, the intensity modulator is an electro-optic intensitymodulator.

Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments relates to an opticalencoder incorporating a Sagnac interferometric configuration. Theoptical encoder includes an optical circulator configured to allow anoptical probe signal to reach an optical coupler, a first opticalmultiplexer/demultiplexer to receive the optical probe signal from theoptical circulator and to receive an optical pump signal, a non-linearoptical medium coupled to an output of the first opticalmultiplexer/demultiplexer and configured to effect phase modulation ontothe optical probe signal in accordance with the optical pump signal, anda second optical multiplexer/demultiplexer coupled to an output of thenon-linear optical medium. In this embodiment, each of the first and thesecond optical multiplexer/demultiplexer is configured to operate as amultiplexer for optical beams that are input to the correspondingoptical multiplexer/demultiplexer in one direction, and operate as ademultiplexer for optical beams that are input therein in anotherdirection. Additionally, the second optical multiplexer/demultiplexer iscoupled to the optical coupler to allow a first one of complementaryamplitude-modulated optical signals to be directed from a first outputof the optical coupler and to an output of the optical circulator, and asecond one of complementary amplitude-modulated optical signals isprovided through a second output of the optical coupler.

In an example embodiment, the complementary amplitude-modulated opticalsignals enable an improved recovery of encoded information. In anotherexample embodiment, the optical encoder further includes a balancedphotodetector configured to receive the complementaryamplitude-modulated optical signals.

Implementations of the subject matter and the functional operationsdescribed in this patent document can be implemented in various systems,optical components, digital electronic circuitry, or in computersoftware, firmware, or hardware, including the structures disclosed inthis specification and their structural equivalents, or in combinationsof one or more of them.

Part of the disclosed subject matter in this specification can beimplemented as one or more computer program products, i.e., one or moremodules of computer program instructions encoded on a tangible andnon-transitory computer readable medium for execution by, or to controlthe operation of, data processing apparatus. The computer readablemedium can be a machine-readable storage device, a machine-readablestorage substrate, a memory device, a composition of matter effecting amachine-readable propagated signal, or a combination of one or more ofthem. The term “data processing unit” or “data processing apparatus”encompasses all apparatus, devices, and machines for processing data,including by way of example a programmable processor, a computer, ormultiple processors or computers. The apparatus can include, in additionto hardware, code that creates an execution environment for the computerprogram in question, e.g., code that constitutes processor firmware, aprotocol stack, a database management system, an operating system, or acombination of one or more of them.

A computer program (also known as a program, software, softwareapplication, script, or code) can be written in any form of programminglanguage, including compiled or interpreted languages, and it can bedeployed in any form, including as a stand-alone program or as a module,component, subroutine, or other unit suitable for use in a computingenvironment. A computer program does not necessarily correspond to afile in a file system. A program can be stored in a portion of a filethat holds other programs or data (e.g., one or more scripts stored in amarkup language document), in a single file dedicated to the program inquestion, or in multiple coordinated files (e.g., files that store oneor more modules, sub programs, or portions of code). A computer programcan be deployed to be executed on one computer or on multiple computersthat are located at one site or distributed across multiple sites andinterconnected by a communication network.

The processes and logic flows described in this specification can beperformed by one or more programmable processors executing one or morecomputer programs to perform functions by operating on input data andgenerating output. The processes and logic flows can also be performedby, and apparatus can also be implemented as, special purpose logiccircuitry, e.g., an FPGA (field programmable gate array) or an ASIC(application specific integrated circuit).

Processors suitable for the execution of a computer program include, byway of example, both general and special purpose microprocessors, andany one or more processors of any kind of digital computer. Generally, aprocessor will receive instructions and data from a read only memory ora random access memory or both. The essential elements of a computer area processor for performing instructions and one or more memory devicesfor storing instructions and data. Generally, a computer will alsoinclude, or be operatively coupled to receive data from or transfer datato, or both, one or more mass storage devices for storing data, e.g.,magnetic, magneto optical disks, or optical disks. However, a computerneed not have such devices. Computer readable media suitable for storingcomputer program instructions and data include all forms of nonvolatilememory, media and memory devices, including by way of examplesemiconductor memory devices, e.g., EPROM, EEPROM, and flash memorydevices. The processor and the memory can be supplemented by, orincorporated in, special purpose logic circuitry.

While this patent document contains many specifics, these should not beconstrued as limitations on the scope of any invention or of what may beclaimed, but rather as descriptions of features that may be specific toparticular embodiments of particular inventions. Certain features thatare described in this patent document in the context of separateembodiments can also be implemented in combination in a singleembodiment. Conversely, various features that are described in thecontext of a single embodiment can also be implemented in multipleembodiments separately or in any suitable subcombination. Moreover,although features may be described above as acting in certaincombinations and even initially claimed as such, one or more featuresfrom a claimed combination can in some cases be excised from thecombination, and the claimed combination may be directed to asubcombination or variation of a subcombination.

Similarly, while operations are depicted in the drawings in a particularorder, this should not be understood as requiring that such operationsbe performed in the particular order shown or in sequential order, orthat all illustrated operations be performed, to achieve desirableresults. Moreover, the separation of various system components in theembodiments described in this patent document should not be understoodas requiring such separation in all embodiments.

Only a few implementations and examples are described and otherimplementations, enhancements and variations can be made based on whatis described and illustrated in this patent document.

Appendix A- Timing Measurement Apparatus

Generating microwave signals with high spectral purity and stability iscrucial in communication systems, radars, signal processing, radioastronomy, satellites, GPS navigation, spectroscopy, and in time andfrequency metrology. The disclosed techniques can be implemented invarious embodiments to obtain an accurate measurement of timing errorsto generate a frequency agile radio-frequency (RF) signal. The disclosedembodiments also allow the timing information to be recorded in digitalform for subsequent compensation or processing and allow timing errorinformation to be obtained and utilized in real time.

Optical frequency combs can achieve a phase noise that is orders ofmagnitude lower than what is available from commercial microwavereferences. Thus, they have become revolutionary tools in high-precisionapplications, such as low phase noise microwave oscillators andgenerators, low sample timing error of high frequency microwaves andmillimeter waves, photonic analog-to-digital converters, photonics-basedradars, dual-comb ranging, timing synchronization and distribution, andalike.

However, all free-running optical frequency combs exhibit high phasenoise at various timescales. Timing variations or irregularity of theoptical pulse trains, such as jitter, become important properties foroptical frequency comb applications. For example, the general approachto remove or reduce jitter from an optical pulse train in an RF signalgenerator is to measure the jitter of an optical pulse train asaccurately as possible, use that jitter information to correct itseffects as precisely as possible, and use that jitter corrected signalto make a very low jitter RF signal generator. However, existingtechniques that use an electronic reference can be limited by the poorhigh frequency offset phase noise of electronic references. Techniquesthat use an optical reference can be limited by the poor low frequencyoffset phase noise of optical references. Techniques that use astabilized continuous-wave reference require ultrahigh quadraturecavities which are extremely fragile and temperature and/or vibrationsensitive. Some of the conventional techniques also require multi-stagedphase-locked loops for both the repetition rate and the carrier-envelopeoffset, or complicated subsystems that perform spectral broadening andcarrier-envelope offset control.

Many conventional techniques are limited by environmental sensitivity,such as temperature or vibrations through various physical mechanisms.In rougher environments, the amount of requisite isolation increases,posing more challenges to the size and weight of the system.Furthermore, many conventional techniques measures timing irregularities(such as jitter) using an averaging instrument (e.g. the RF spectrumanalyzer). However, temporal dependence of the timing error informationis lost during averaging, so this information cannot be used to correctthe error in real-time. It is thus desirable to obtain a real-timetiming error measurement so as to create a signal generator that is morestable.

The techniques disclosed herein, among other features and benefits,overcome the above limitations and rely in-part on a digitally correctedoptical delay reference. The disclosed embodiments enable precisemeasurements of timing errors in signals using optical techniques. Theexamples provided herein, by the way of example and not by limitation,sometimes refer to jitter measurements. It should be understood,however, that the disclosed embodiments are applicable to measuring alltypes of timing errors, and can be specially beneficial in applicationswhere real-time timing error measurements on a pulse-by-pulse basis isneeded for in-situ correction or optimization of signal generation orprocessing systems. The concept of the digitally corrected delayreference is illustrated using jitter measurements as an example. FIGS.40A-40C illustrate schematic diagrams of performing jitter measurements.When the pulse has a specific timing component, the pulse demonstrates aphase slope associated with the timing. FIG. 40(a) illustrates a perfectpulse train and its associated optical spectrum. The initial phase slopein this particular example is 0. In addition to the phase slope, thereis also a phase offset caused by any irregularities in the timingcomponent. FIG. 40(b) illustrates an example phase offset caused byjitter in the pulse train. Furthermore, the phase offset is also relatedto the carrier envelope offset (CEO) phase. This is the phase of theoptical pulse carrier, which can vary independently from the timing ofthe pulse itself. FIG. 40(c) illustrates an example phase offset causedby both jitter and carrier envelope offset. When two pulses interferewith each other, the spectral interference pattern encodes the phasedifferences in the intensity pattern. Given two phase offsets Δ∅_(high)and Δ∅_(low) measured at different frequencies, υ_(high) and υ_(low),respectively, the phase offset caused by carrier envelope offsetΔ∅_(CEO) can be eliminated as follows:

$\begin{array}{l}{\Delta\text{O}_{high} - \Delta_{low} = \left( {2\pi v_{high}t_{jitter} + \Delta\text{O}_{CEO}} \right) -} \\{\left( {2\pi v_{low}t_{jitter} + \Delta\text{O}_{CEO}} \right)}\end{array}$

 = 2π(v_(high) − v_(low))t_(jitter)

The phase offset caused by jitter can then be determined as:

$\Delta t_{jitter} = \frac{\left( {\Delta\text{O}_{high} - \Delta\text{O}_{low}} \right)}{2\pi\left( {v_{high} - v_{low}} \right)}$

The different frequency values v_(high) and v_(low) can be selectedusing different optical filters. An optical filter is a device thattakes in an optical wave and outputs that optical wave with somewavelengths of the spectrum with lower output power than others. Forexample, an optical filter can pass a contiguous fraction of the inputbandwidth, with each of the optical filters passing a different band ofwavelengths, e.g. arrayed waveguide gratings, thin-film filters, orfiber Bragg gratings. Many optical filters have multiple outputs, eachcorresponding to a distinct frequency band of the input. In thisdocument, optical filters are also referred as wavelength divisionmultiplexers (WDMs). In addition to arrayed waveguide gratings andthin-film filters, they can be constructed in multiple ways, includingbut not limited to: a coupler followed by single output filters on eachoutput, a set of reflective filters can be combined with circulator,such that the reflection from one filter is circulated to the nextfilter. The filters can be selected so that they can cover the opticalspectrum of the train of pulse while maintaining sufficient separationof the frequencies. Phase offsets caused by other types of timingvariations or irregularities can be determined in a similar fashion.

FIG. 41(a) illustrates an example timing measurement apparatus 4100 inaccordance with the present technology. The apparatus 4100 accepts twoinputs into an optical hybrid device. The optical hybrid is a devicethat can include a number of beam splitters and one or more quarter-waveplates. The optical hybrid includes at least two inputs and at least twooutputs such that the two inputs are interfered at each output, with aphase difference between the inputs that is different for each output.For example, the device can produce 0 and 90-degree phase differenceoutputs, or 0, 90, 180, and 270-degree outputs. In some embodiments, thephase difference between the outputs can have values other than 90°.

In this embodiment, the optical hybrid generates two outputs whosephases are shifted 90 degrees from each other (e.g., 0° and 90°outputs). The two outputs of the optical hybrid are fed into wavelengthdivision multiplexers (e.g., optical filters). The outputs of eachwavelength division multiplexer (e.g., v_(high) and v_(low)) are fedinto photodetectors to convert optical signals into radio-frequency (RF)signals. The RF outputs from the photodetectors are then digitized usinganalog-to-digital converters.

The digital signals output from the timing measurement apparatus can befed into a digital processor to calculate a pulse pair phase differenceat each wavelength. In some embodiments, the digital processor is a partof the timing measurement apparatus. In general, at least some of thecomponents in FIG. 41(a)(as well as other figures in this patentdocument) can be implemented as part of the timing measurement device,or as separate components and/or at remote locations with respect toother components of the system. For example, in some embodiments, thedigital processor is a separate component implemented outside of thetiming measurement apparatus. Similarly, the analog-to-digitalconverters or even, in some instances, the photodetectors can beimplemented as separated components.

FIG. 41(b)illustrates a different version of a timing measurementapparatus in accordance with the present technology to provide betterunderstanding of the phase offset calculations. The phase offsetΔ∅_(high) can be obtained as:

ΔO_(high) = atan2(P_(0^(∘), high), P_(90^(∘), high))

The phase offset Δ∅_(low) can be obtained as:

ΔO_(low) = atan2(P_(0^(∘), low), P_(90^(∘), low))

The phase offset caused by timing error (e.g., jitter) can then bedetermined according to Eq. (3). As shown in Eq. (3), the pulse pairphase differences at each wavelength for the same original pulse aresubtracted to eliminate the carrier envelope offset phase. The resultcan be scaled by the optical frequency difference between phases fromany pair of wavelengths to yield the time difference between the pulses.

FIG. 42(a)illustrates another example timing measurement apparatus 4300in accordance with the present technology. The apparatus 4300 acceptstwo inputs into an optical hybrid device. The optical hybrid generatesfour outputs whose phases are shifted 90 degrees from each other (e.g.,0°, 90°, 180°, and 270° outputs). The four outputs of the optical hybridare fed into wavelength division multiplexers. The outputs of eachwavelength division multiplexer (e.g., v_(high) and v_(low)) are fedinto photodetectors to convert optical signals into radio-frequency (RF)signals. The RF outputs from the photodetectors are digitized usinganalog-to-digital converters.

The digital signals output from the timing measurement apparatus are fedinto a digital processor. Similar to the embodiment shown in FIG. 41 ,some of the apparatus components, such as the digital processor, can bea part of the timing measurement apparatus or a separate componentimplemented outside of the timing measurement apparatus. The digitalprocessor calculates the difference between the 0° and 180° pulses fromeach frequency band as well as the 90° and 270° outputs from eachfrequency band. The two differences are fed as inputs into the pulsepair phase difference algorithm.

FIG. 42(b)illustrates a different version of a timing measurementapparatus in accordance with the present technology to provide betterunderstanding of the phase offset calculations. The phase offsetΔ∅_(high) can be obtained as:

ΔO_(high) = atan2(P_(0^(∘), high) − P_(180^(∘), high), P_(90^(∘), high) − P_(270^(∘), high))

The phase offset Δ∅_(low) can be obtained as:

ΔO_(low) = atan2(P_(0^(∘), low) − P_(180^(∘), low), P_(90^(∘), low) − P_(270^(∘), low))

The phase offset caused by timing error (e.g., jitter) can then bedetermined according to Eq. (3).

FIG. 43(a)illustrates another example timing measurement apparatus 4200in accordance with the present technology. The apparatus 4200 acceptstwo inputs into an optical hybrid device. The optical hybrid generatesfour outputs whose phases are shifted 90 degrees from each other (e.g.,0°, 90°, 180°, and 270° outputs). The 0° and 180° pulses from theoptical hybrid are directed to two WDMs. Outputs from the same frequencyband of the 0° and 180° pulses are directed into one set of balancedphotodetectors. Likewise, outputs from the same frequency band of the90° and 270° pulses are directed into another set of balancedphotodetectors.

FIG. 43(b)illustrates a different version of a timing measurementapparatus in accordance with the present technology. The phase offsetΔ∅_(high) can be obtained as:

ΔO_(high) = atan2(P_(0^(∘) − 180^(∘), high), P_(90^(∘) − 270^(∘), high))

The phase offset Δ∅_(low) can be obtained as:

ΔO_(low) = atan2(P_(0^(∘) − 180^(∘), low), P_(90^(∘) − 270^(∘), low))

The phase offset caused by timing error (e.g., jitter) can then bedetermined according to Eq. (3).

FIG. 44 illustrates yet another example timing measurement apparatus4400 in accordance with the present technology. In this embodiment, thetiming measurement apparatus 4400 is similar to the apparatus 4100 inFIG. 41(a)but is illustrated as including the digital processor as partof the apparatus. In addition, the digital processor receives not onlythe digital signals from the analog-to-digital converters but also oneor more control signals. The one or more control signals can be used toaccount for timing offsets or timing error compensation, can be signalsassociated with environmental and external factors, such as temperature,vibrations or other channel information. The digital processor can usesuch control signal to correct or compensate for such timing orenvironmental factors.

FIG. 45 illustrates an example architecture of a timing measurementsystem 4500 in accordance with the present technology. As shown in FIG.45 , a pulse source generates an optical pulse train. The optical pulsetrain is then provided to a coupler. The coupler is a device that splitsthe input optical wave (or combines two input optical waves from twoports) into two output optical waves at ports Out1 and Out2, each with afraction of the power of the input(s). The coupler can maintain thepolarization state of the input for optimal operation. In thisembodiment, one of the outputs of the coupler is directed into a timingmeasurement device directly. The other output of the coupler is fed intothe timing measurement device (such as those shown in exampleconfigurations of FIGS. 41 to 44 ) via an optical delay component. Theoptical delay component can be a polarization maintaining optical fiber,such as an integrated photonic optical delay line (e.g. siliconphotonic, planar lightwave circuit, InP, GaAs, etc.). The length of theoptical delay can be chosen to overlap pulses that are N ≥ 1 periodsapart.

FIG. 46 illustrates another example architecture of a timing measurementsystem 4600 in accordance with the present technology. In thisembodiment, the timing measurement system 4600 accepts one or morecontrol signals so that a timing offset can be added to the timing errorsignal. In both embodiments shown in FIG. 45 and FIG. 46 , the opticalhybrid, which is a part of the timing measurement device, eliminates theneed for a phase locked loop and repetition rate tunable laser as usedin some of the conventional techniques. The timing error information canbe recorded in the digital form so that it can be used for compensationor combined with other subsequent processing. In some embodiments, theaverage peak of the pulses from the photodetectors can be aligned to thesample time of the digitizer, whose sample rate is equal to the pulserepetition rate.

FIG. 47 illustrates another example architecture of a timing measurementsystem 4700 in accordance with the present technology. This embodimentcan be implemented when the digitizer sample rate is higher than thepulse repetition rate, and the multiple samples on each pulse correspondto the multiple optical frequencies of the pulse. The timing measurementsystem 4700 here includes a dispersive device that separates eachpulse’s optical frequencies temporally. The system 4700 then aligns theaverage peak of the pulses from the photodetectors to the sample time ofthe digitizers. The outputs from the optical hybrid are fed directly tothe photodetectors, thereby removing the need for additionalphotodetectors and digitizers. Alternatively, multiple dispersivedevices can be used to connect the outputs from the optical hybrid tothe photodetectors. The pulses are temporally aligned either in theanalog domain (e.g., using optical delay lines) or in the digitalprocessor with a shift (e.g. using circshift). The digital processorthen processes the samples corresponding to the same pulse. The phaseoffset Δ∅(n, m) as a function of pulse number n and sample point withina single pulse m can be obtained as:

ΔO(n, m) = atan2(P_(0^(∘))(n, m), P_(90^(∘))(n, m))

In some embodiments, a line can be fit to the independent variableoptical frequency ω, which is related to sample number m by thefrequency-time mapping, and dependent variable Δ∅(n, m), for a singlepulse, yielding an intercept and slope for each pulse. The timing errorcan be deemed as being proportional to the slope of this line.

Typically, optical delay lines have temperature and vibrationdependency. FIG. 48 illustrates an example architecture of a timingmeasurement system 4800 that reduces environmental dependency inaccordance with the present technology. The timing measurement system4800 adds a temperature and/or vibration sensor onto the optical delayline so that information from the sensor can be used to digitally removeor reduce optical delay variations caused by environmental fluctuationson the timing error measurement.

FIG. 49 illustrates another example architecture of a timing measurementsystem 4900 in accordance with the present technology. In thisembodiment, the optical pulse train is coupled into a first coupler tocreate two copies: Out1 and Out2. The first copy, Out1, is transmitteddirectly into a first timing measurement device. The second copy, Out2,is fed into both polarizations of a birefringent optical delay line thatmaintains polarization. In some embodiments, the polarizations arecreated by a polarization rotator, such as a 45-degree splice that sendslinearly polarized light half into each polarization, that is placedbetween the coupler and the birefringent optical delay line. The opticalsignal from the optical delay line is then fed into a polarizing beamsplitter that separates light that travels through the slow and fastaxes of the birefringent optical delay line. Light from one axis (e.g.slow) is sent to a second coupler. One output of the second coupler isfed into the first timing measurement device, whose other input receivesthe first copy of the first optical pulse train Out1. The other outputof the second coupler and light from the other axis (e.g. fast) from thebeam splitter are fed into a second timing measurement device.

The first timing error signal t_(TMD1)(n) as a function of measurementnumber n from the first timing measurement device is between pulses thatare many pulse periods (M) apart, and the delay is proportional totemperature changes ΔT(n) that vary with measurement number n and withcoefficient K₁ that is independent of n due to changes in the delayline’s length and group index from temperature changes. The secondtiming error t_(TMD2)(n) from the second timing measurement device isbetween pulses that are a few pulse periods (N) apart, and the delay isproportional to a temperature change ΔT(n) with coefficient K₂ that isindependent of n due to changes in the delay line’s length andbirefringence. Both signals are sensitive and linearly proportional totemperature, yielding a linear system with two equations (relationshipbetween temperature change and single or dual polarization delay) andtwo unknowns (temperature change and delay between each far apart pulsepair).

t_(TMD1)(n) = MΔt(n) + t₁ + K₁ΔT(n)

t_(TMD2)(n) = NΔt(n) + t₂ + K₂ΔT(n)

where Δt(n) is the timing difference between adjacent pulses, averagedover M pulses; t₁ and t₂ can be freely chosen, e.g. such that for thefirst measurement point n = 1, Δt(1) = 0 and ΔT(1) = 0 for bothequations; regardless, t₁ and t₂ do not vary with n. As long as theratio of the timing changes to temperature is different from the ratioof number of pulse periods apart (which is the case for standardpolarization maintaining fiber), the system of equations Eq. (11) andEq. (12) is invertible. Solving that system yields the delay betweenpulses from the optical pulse train.

FIG. 50 illustrates another example architecture of a timing measurementsystem 5000 in accordance with the present technology. In thisembodiment, the timing measurement system 5000 can stabilizes theoptical delay line using a temperature and/or vibration sensor.Information from the temperature and/or vibration sensor can create acompensational signal along the optical delay line. The compensationsignal can be sent to a delay line adjustment device, e.g. a fiberstretcher, a heater, or a tunable optical delay line placed before orafter the optical delay line to perform the stabilization.

degree/other channels and/or phase differences between channels besides90 degrees. In addition, 0° and 90° pulses (as well as the 180° and 270°pulses) are ideally proportional to the sine and cosine of the modulatedphase at the time of sampling. Thus, when plotted on the axes of agraph, the 0° and 90° pulses (similarly, the 180° and 270° pulses) fromall possible modulated phases should form a circle. Any deviation from atrue circle is a result of distortion in the system. To remove suchdistortions, the digital processor can sample the received data to fitan ellipse to the shape (e.g. using a least-squares fit). From theellipse coefficients, the digital processor can calculate coefficientsto transform that ellipse to a circle to removes biases and/or offsetsin the components such as the modulators, digitizers, etc.

What is claimed is:
 1. A photonic filtered sampler, comprising: aspectral shaper configured to receive an optical pulse train; adispersive element positioned to receive an output of the spectralshaper and to expand spectral contents thereof in time; and a modulatorconfigured to receive an output of the dispersive element and a radiofrequency (RF) signal, and to produce a modulated output optical signalin accordance with the RF signal, wherein one or more characteristics ofthe modulated output optical signal is determined based on a spectralshape provided by the spectral shaper and dispersive properties of thedispersive element.
 2. The photonic filtered sampler of claim 1, whereinthe one or more characteristics includes a shift in a center frequencyand a spectral width of the modulated output optical signal.
 3. Thephotonic filtered sampler of claim 1, including a delay lineinterferometer, wherein the one or more characteristics is determined atleast in-part based on an amount of delay provided by the delay lineinterferometer.
 4. The photonic filtered sampler of claim 3, wherein thedelay line interferometer includes: an optical splitter configured toreceive the optical pulse train and to produce two versions of theoptical pulse train, an optical delay component configured to receive afirst version of the optical pulse train and impart a time delay theretoto produce a delayed optical pulse train, and an optical couplerconfigured to receive the delayed optical pulse train and a secondversion of the optical pulse train, and to produce an output that isprovided to the dispersive element.
 5. The photonic filtered sampler ofclaim 1, wherein the dispersive element has fixed dispersive properties.6. The photonic filtered sampler of claim 4, wherein the optical delaycomponent is configured to impart a fixed delay value to the firstversion of the optical pulse train.
 7. The photonic filtered sampler ofclaim 4, wherein one or both of the optical delay component or thedispersive element is tunable.
 8. The photonic filtered sampler of claim7, wherein the optical delay component comprises one or more of thefollowing components to effect tunability: a mechanical free spacestage, one or more switches operable to select a particular delay valueusing an array of fixed time delay elements, or a phase shifterconfigured to tune a fringe phase of an optical signal in the delay lineinterferometer relative to an envelope of thereof.
 9. The photonicfiltered sampler of claim 7, wherein the dispersive element comprisesone or more of the following components to effect tunability: a heater,or one or more switches operable to use an array of fixed dispersionelements to select different dispersion values.
 10. The photonicfiltered sampler of claim 1, wherein the photonic filtered sampler isconfigured as part of a filtered photonic encoder comprising: an opticalmultiplexer configured to receive the modulated output optical signalfrom the modulator and an optical probe signal, a non-linear opticalmedium positioned to receive an output of the optical multiplexer, andan optical demultiplexer configured to receive an output of thenon-linear optical medium and to produce a phase-modulated probe signal.11. The photonic filtered sampler of claim 10, wherein the filteredphotonic encoder further comprises an optical compressive elementpositioned between the modulator and the optical multiplexer to reduce awidth of optical pulses that are output from the modulator beforereaching the optical multiplexer.
 12. The photonic filtered sampler ofclaim 10, wherein the photonic filtered encoder comprises an opticalsource configured to produce the optical probe signal.
 13. The photonicfiltered sampler of claim 1, wherein the modulator is an electro-opticintensity modulator.
 14. The photonic filtered sampler of claim 1,wherein the spectral shaper includes an optical filter including athin-film or Bragg grating.
 15. The photonic filtered sampler of claim1, wherein the spectral shaper includes a first diffraction gratingconfigured to separate optical frequencies in space, a spatial lightmodulator configured to alter insertion loss of each optical frequencyindividually, and a second diffraction grating to combine the opticalfrequencies back together.
 16. The photonic filtered sampler of claim15, wherein the first diffraction grating is the same as the seconddiffraction grating.
 17. A photonic filtered sampler, comprising: adelay line interferometer configured to receive an optical pulse train;a dispersive element positioned to receive an output of the delay lineinterferometer and to expand spectral contents thereof in time; and amodulator configured to receive an output of the dispersive element anda radio frequency (RF) signal, and to produce a modulated output opticalsignal in accordance with the RF signal, wherein one or morecharacteristics of the modulated output optical signal is determinedbased on an amount of delay provided by the delay line interferometer.18. The photonic filtered sampler of claim 17, wherein the delay lineinterferometer includes: an optical splitter configured to receive theoptical pulse train and to produce two versions of the optical pulsetrain, an optical delay component configured to receive a first versionof the optical pulse train and impart a time delay thereto to produce adelayed optical pulse train, and an optical coupler configured toreceive the delayed optical pulse train and a second version of theoptical pulse train, and to produce an output that is provided to thedispersive element.
 19. The photonic filtered sampler of claim 17,wherein the photonic filtered sampler is configured as part of afiltered photonic encoder comprising: an optical multiplexer configuredto receive the modulated output optical signal from the modulator and anoptical probe signal, a non-linear optical medium positioned to receivean output of the optical multiplexer, and an optical demultiplexerconfigured to receive an output of the non-linear optical medium and toproduce a phase-modulated probe signal.
 20. The photonic filteredsampler of claim 19, wherein the filtered photonic encoder furthercomprises an optical compressive element positioned between themodulator and the optical multiplexer to reduce a width of opticalpulses that are output from the modulator before reaching the opticalmultiplexer.